Hakka | History, Culture & Language | Britannica
Search Britannica
Click here to search
Search Britannica
Click here to search
Login
Subscribe
Subscribe
Home
Games & Quizzes
History & Society
Science & Tech
Biographies
Animals & Nature
Geography & Travel
Arts & Culture
Money
Videos
On This Day
One Good Fact
Dictionary
New Articles
History & Society
Lifestyles & Social Issues
Philosophy & Religion
Politics, Law & Government
World History
Science & Tech
Health & Medicine
Science
Technology
Biographies
Browse Biographies
Animals & Nature
Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
Environment
Fossils & Geologic Time
Mammals
Plants
Geography & Travel
Geography & Travel
Arts & Culture
Entertainment & Pop Culture
Literature
Sports & Recreation
Visual Arts
Companions
Demystified
Image Galleries
Infographics
Lists
Podcasts
Spotlights
Summaries
The Forum
Top Questions
#WTFact
100 Women
Britannica Kids
Saving Earth
Space Next 50
Student Center
Home
Games & Quizzes
History & Society
Science & Tech
Biographies
Animals & Nature
Geography & Travel
Arts & Culture
Money
Videos
Hakka
Table of Contents
Hakka
Table of Contents
Introduction
References & Edit History
Related Topics
Discover
Did Marie-Antoinette Really Say “Let Them Eat Cake”?
Ten Days That Vanished: The Switch to the Gregorian Calendar
9 of the World’s Deadliest Spiders
The 10 Greatest Basketball Players of All Time
12 Greek Gods and Goddesses
How Many Electoral College Votes Does Each U.S. State Have?
What Did Cleopatra Look Like?
Home
Geography & Travel
Human Geography
Peoples of Asia
Geography & Travel
Hakka
people
Actions
Cite
verifiedCite
While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies.
Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.
Select Citation Style
MLA
APA
Chicago Manual of Style
Copy Citation
Share
Share
Share to social media
URL
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hakka
Give Feedback
External Websites
Feedback
Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login).
Feedback Type
Select a type (Required)
Factual Correction
Spelling/Grammar Correction
Link Correction
Additional Information
Other
Your Feedback
Submit Feedback
Thank you for your feedback
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.
External Websites
College of Saint Benedict and Saint John’s University - Digital Commons - Did the Hakka Save China? Ethnicity, Identity, and Minority Status in China's Modern Transformation
Asia Society - Defining Hakka Identity: From History to Culture and Cuisine
National Library Board Singapore - Singapore Infopedia - Hakka community
Hakka Affairs Commission, Kaohsiung City Government - About Hakka
Joshua Project - Hakka Chinese in Myanmar (Burma)
GlobalSecurity.org - Taiwan - Hakka
Cite
verifiedCite
While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies.
Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.
Select Citation Style
MLA
APA
Chicago Manual of Style
Copy Citation
Share
Share
Share to social media
URL
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hakka
Feedback
External Websites
Feedback
Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login).
Feedback Type
Select a type (Required)
Factual Correction
Spelling/Grammar Correction
Link Correction
Additional Information
Other
Your Feedback
Submit Feedback
Thank you for your feedback
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.
External Websites
College of Saint Benedict and Saint John’s University - Digital Commons - Did the Hakka Save China? Ethnicity, Identity, and Minority Status in China's Modern Transformation
Asia Society - Defining Hakka Identity: From History to Culture and Cuisine
National Library Board Singapore - Singapore Infopedia - Hakka community
Hakka Affairs Commission, Kaohsiung City Government - About Hakka
Joshua Project - Hakka Chinese in Myanmar (Burma)
GlobalSecurity.org - Taiwan - Hakka
Also known as: K’o-chia, Kejia, Perankan
Written and fact-checked by
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated:
Mar 1, 2024
•
Article History
Table of Contents
Category:
Geography & Travel
Chinese (Pinyin):
Kejia or
(Wade-Giles romanization):
K’o-chia
(Show more)
On the Web:
Hakka Affairs Commission, Kaohsiung City Government - About Hakka (Mar. 01, 2024)
(Show more)
See all related content →
Hakka, ethnic group of China. Originally, the Hakka were North Chinese, but they migrated to South China (especially Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Guangxi provinces) during the fall of the Nan (Southern) Song dynasty in the 1270s. Worldwide they are thought to number about 80 million today, although the number of Hakka speakers is considerably lower. They are considered to be a branch of the Han.Their origins remain obscure, but the people who became the Hakka are thought to have lived originally in Henan and Shanxi provinces in the Huang He (Yellow River) valley. They moved southward from there in two large migrations, one in the early 4th century and another in the late 9th century, perhaps to escape warfare or the domination of Inner Asian peoples. Their final migration in the 13th century took them farther south to their present areas of concentration.The name Hakka may have been derived from a Cantonese pronunciation of the Mandarin word kejia (“guest people”), which the northerners were called to distinguish them from the bendi, or natives. Alternately, it may have been a name the Hakka gave themselves when they migrated south. Having settled in South China in their own communities, the Hakka never became fully assimilated into the native population. Unlike most other Chinese before the 20th century, they shunned such practices as foot binding. Their language has affinities with both Cantonese, the language of the people of Guangdong province, and Mandarin, the language of much of northern and central China; many of the Hakka tongue’s initial sounds are a bridge between the two dialects.During the 18th and 19th centuries, when conditions in South China became very bad and land quite scarce, the Hakka often were involved in land feuds with the bendi. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–64), which is said to have resulted in the death of more than 20 million people and completely shattered South China, initially grew out of these local conflicts. Although the bendi eventually joined the revolt, Taiping leadership was mainly of Hakka origin.
After the rebellion, the Hakka continued to be involved in little skirmishes with their neighbours, as a result of which many migrated to other areas. Today many Hakka live in such widely scattered locations as Taiwan, Malaysia (including Sabah and Sarawak on Borneo), Singapore, Thailand, and even Jamaica. In South China they continue to dwell mainly in the less fertile upland areas and in Hong Kong.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Kenneth Pletcher.
Hakka people - Wikipedia
Jump to content
Main menu
Main menu
move to sidebar
hide
Navigation
Main pageContentsCurrent eventsRandom articleAbout WikipediaContact usDonate
Contribute
HelpLearn to editCommunity portalRecent changesUpload file
Languages
Language links are at the top of the page.
Search
Search
Create account
Log in
Personal tools
Create account Log in
Pages for logged out editors learn more
ContributionsTalk
Contents
move to sidebar
hide
(Top)
1Origins, migrations and group identification
Toggle Origins, migrations and group identification subsection
1.1Migrations
1.2Identity
1.3Origins
2Discrimination and hatred of Hakkas
Toggle Discrimination and hatred of Hakkas subsection
2.1Imperial era
2.2By the Cantonese
2.2.1Mass killings of Hakkas
2.2.2Cantonese overseas
2.3By Guangxi people
2.4By other Yue
3Culture
4Language
5Arts
Toggle Arts subsection
5.1Hakka hill song
5.2Hakkapop
6Media
7Food culture
8Foot binding
9Architecture
10Religion
11Mainland China
Toggle Mainland China subsection
11.1Guangdong
11.2Fujian
11.3Jiangxi
11.4Sichuan
11.5Hunan
11.6Henan
12Hong Kong
13Taiwan
14Hakkas elsewhere
Toggle Hakkas elsewhere subsection
14.1Southeast Asia
14.1.1Vietnam
14.1.2Cambodia
14.1.3Thailand
14.1.4Singapore
14.1.5Malaysia
14.1.6Indonesia
14.1.6.1Bangka (in Indonesia)
14.1.6.2West Kalimantan (in Indonesia)
14.1.6.3Jakarta (in Indonesia)
14.1.7East Timor
14.2South Asia
14.2.1India
14.3Africa
14.3.1South Africa
14.3.2Mauritius
14.3.3Réunion
14.4Americas
14.4.1United States
14.4.2Canada
14.4.3Jamaica
14.4.4Suriname
14.4.5Guyana
14.5Oceania
14.5.1Australia
14.5.2New Zealand
14.5.3Tahiti
15Population
16Hakkaology
17Political and military leadership
18In popular culture
19See also
20Further reading
Toggle Further reading subsection
20.1People and identity
20.2Politics
20.3Language
20.4Religion
20.5Food
20.6Family stories
21References
22External links
Toggle the table of contents
Hakka people
41 languages
AfrikaansالعربيةAsturianuBân-lâm-gúCatalàDeutschEspañolEuskaraفارسیFrançais客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어HrvatskiBahasa IndonesiaItalianoעבריתJawaLietuviųMagyarമലയാളംBahasa Melayu閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄မြန်မာဘာသာNederlands日本語Norsk bokmålPangcahPolskiPortuguêsРусскийSimple EnglishSuomiSvenskaไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаVahcuenghTiếng Việt吴语粵語中文
Edit links
ArticleTalk
English
ReadEditView history
Tools
Tools
move to sidebar
hide
Actions
ReadEditView history
General
What links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationCite this pageGet shortened URLDownload QR codeWikidata item
Print/export
Download as PDFPrintable version
In other projects
Wikimedia CommonsWikiquote
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ethnic group native to southeastern China and Taiwan
"Hakka" redirects here. For other uses, see Hakka (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Hakha.
Hakka客家 · Hak-kâ客家漢族[1]Hakka dancers performing traditional Qilin dance in MalaysiaTotal populationc. 80 million[2]Regions with significant populationsPrimarily China (Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Zhejiang, Hainan, Guizhou, Hong Kong S.A.R., Macau S.A.R.), Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Europe, AmericasLanguages
Hakka Chinese (native)
Standard Chinese (auxiliary)
Hokkien (Taiwanese Hakkas)
Cantonese (Hong Kong, Malaysia and Macau)
ReligionPredominantly Chinese folk religions (Confucianism, Taoism, ancestral worship and others), Mahayana Buddhism, Christianity, non-religious and othersRelated ethnic groupsOther Han Chinese (Gan people), Han Taiwanese, Hong Kong people, She people
Hakka peopleChinese nameChinese客家Literal meaning"guest families"TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinKèjiāWade–GilesKo4-chia1IPA[kʰɤ̂.tɕjá]GanRomanizationKak6 Ga1HakkaRomanizationHag2-ga24Yue: CantoneseYale RomanizationHaak-gāaJyutpingHaak3-gaa1IPA[haːk̚˧.kaː˥]Southern MinTâi-lôKheh-kaVietnamese nameVietnamesengười Khách Gia, người Hẹ
The Hakka (Chinese: 客家), sometimes also referred to as Hakka Han,[1][3] or Hakka Chinese,[4] or Hakkas, are a Han Chinese subgroup whose ancestral homes are chiefly in the Hakka-speaking provincial areas of Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Zhejiang, Hainan, and Guizhou in China, as well as in Taoyuan City, Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, Pingtung County, and Kaohsiung City in Taiwan. Unlike other Han Chinese subgroups, the Hakkas are not named after a geographical region, e.g. a province, county or city, in China. That is because their origins were of northern Chinese refugees fleeing social unrest, upheaval and invasions throughout the northern parts of China (such as Gansu and Henan) throughout history who then sought sanctuary in the south where the Cantonese speaking provinces such as Guangdong and Guangxi are. The Chinese characters for Hakka (客家) literally means "guest families".[5] The word is Cantonese in origin and as the name implies, they are the guest of the Cantonese people. Over the centuries though, they have since more or less assimilated with the Cantonese speaking population. Modern day Hakka are generally identified by both full Hakka and by different degrees of Hakka ancestry and usually speak Hakka Chinese.
The Hakkas are thought to have originated from the central plains.[6] Genetic studies have shown that the Hakka people are largely descended from North Han Chinese.[7] In a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved and settled in their present areas in South China and from there, substantial numbers migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world.[8] As the most diasporic among the Chinese community groups, the worldwide population of Hakkas (including in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan) is about 80 million to 120 million.[2] The Hakkas moved from Central China into Southern China at a time when the earlier Han Chinese settlers who already lived there had developed distinctive cultural identities and languages from Hakkas. The Tunbao and Chuanqing people are other Han Chinese subgroups that migrated from possibly somewhere in Central or Eastern China to Southwestern China while maintaining their ancestral traditions which differentiated them from the native Chinese people.
The Hakka people have had a significant influence on the course of modern Chinese and overseas Chinese history; in particular, they have been a source of many government and military leaders—in 1984, over half of the Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Politburo were Hakka.[9]
The Hakka language is the most closely related to Gan and is sometimes classified as a variety of Gan, with a few northern Hakka varieties even being partially mutually intelligible with southern Gan. There are also some studies that consider Hakka people and Gan people have related genetics and shared areal features.[10] Today, Hakka is one of the official languages of Taiwan.[11] But like other official languages such as Hokkien and Formosan languages, they do not have the de facto special status of Taiwanese Mandarin (Guoyu).
Origins, migrations and group identification[edit]
Migrations[edit]
Migrants were referred to as Hakka, and no specific people were referred to as Hakka at first. Northern China's Yellow River area was the homeland of the Hakka.[12]
Since the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), the ancestors of the Hakka people have migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval and invasions from the northern provinces (e.g. Gansu, Henan).[6] Subsequent migrations also occurred at the end of the Tang dynasty in the 10th century to 12th century, the last of which saw a massive flood of refugees escaping southward when the nomadic barbarians invaded as well as from starvation and poor weather.
During the 16th century, in response to an economic boom, the Hakkas moved into hilly areas to mine for zinc and lead and also moved into the coastal plains to cultivate cash crops. After an economic downturn, many of these ventures failed, and many people had to turn to pillaging to make ends meet.[13]
Identity[edit]
Hakka peasants wearing Hanfu during Ming dynasty, as depicted in the Boxer Codex (1590)
Although different in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what Varieties of Chinese the population spoke. Therefore, they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Lo Hsiang-lin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties.
According to the 2009 studies published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, Hakka genes are slightly tilted[clarify] towards northern Han people compared with other southern Han people.[14] Nevertheless, the study has also shown a common genetic relationship between tested Han Chinese testers with an average difference of 0.32%.[14]
Lingnan Hakka place names indicate a long history of the Hakka being culturally Han Chinese.[15]
Unlike other Han Chinese groups, the Hakkas are not named after a geographical region, e.g. a province, county or city. The Hakka people have a distinct identity from the Cantonese people. As 60% of the Hakkas in China reside in Guangdong province, and 95% of overseas Hakkas ancestral homes are in Guangdong. Hakkas from Chaoshan, Canton, and Fujian may self-identify as only Chaoshanese, Cantonese and Hokkiens.
Strangers who find out that the other party is a Hakka will affectionately acknowledge each other as "chhit-kâ-ngìn" (自家人) meaning "(one)self’s family".
Origins[edit]
Hakka language distribution in mainland China and Taiwan[citation needed].
It is commonly held that the Hakkas are a subgroup of the Han Chinese that originated in the central plains.[16][17] To trace their origins, a number of theories so far have been brought forth among anthropologists, linguists and historians:[18]
the Hakkas are Han Chinese originating solely from the Central Plain;[18]
the Hakkas are northern Han Chinese from the Central Plain with some inflow of Han Chinese from the south;[18]
the Hakkas are southern Han Chinese with some inflow of northern Han Chinese from the Central Plain.[18]
The theories indicating a descent from both northern and southern Han are the most likely and are together supported by multiple scientific studies.[17][18][14] Furthermore, research into the mitochondrial DNA of the Hakka indicates that the majority of their matrilineal gene pool consists of lineages prevalent in the southern Han.[18] Clyde Kiang stated that the Hakkas' origins may also be linked with Han's ancient neighbors, the Dongyi and Xiongnu people.[19] However, this is disputed by many scholars and Kiang's theories are considered to be controversial.[20]
Hakka Chinese scientist and researcher Dr. Siu-Leung Lee stated in the book by Chung Yoon-Ngan, The Hakka Chinese: Their Origin, Folk Songs And Nursery Rhymes, that the potential Hakka origins from the Northern Han and Xiongnu and that of the indigenous Southern She (畬族) and Yue (越族) tribes, "are all correct, yet none alone explain the origin of the Hakka", pointing out that the problem with "DNA typing" on limited numbers of people within population pools cannot correctly ascertain who is really the Southern Chinese, because many Southern Chinese are also from Northern Asia; Hakka or non-Hakka.[21] It is known that the earliest major waves of Hakka migration began due to the attacks of the two aforementioned tribes during the Jin dynasty (266–420).[22]
Discrimination and hatred of Hakkas[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Hakkas have been frequently subjected to hatred and discrimination by other Chinese ethnic groups, which they have interacted with throughout history. The expressions of such prejudices by other ethnic groups have ranged from hurling minor verbal insults to committing genocides against the Hakkas.[citation needed]
Imperial era[edit]
In retaliation after defeating the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Huxiang military killed 30,000 Hakkas every day during the height of the anti-Hakka mass-killing operation.[23]
Government officials mobilized officers and men to kill the Hakkas, regained the Guanghai villages (region of Taishan city (臺山市) of Guangdong province) which was occupied by the Hakkas and massacred Hakkas indiscriminately. The number of Hakkas killed was tens of thousands in the Dalongdong area of Guanghai alone.
In retaliation for killing three Hunanese officers, the Hunanese forces exterminated the entire Hakka population of Wukeng and Chixi during military counter-attacks on the Hakkas in the year 1888. The Xiang Army also massacred tens of thousands of other Hakkas in Guanghai.
By the Cantonese[edit]
Mass killings of Hakkas[edit]
Shenzhen Hakkas Folk Customs Museum-Hehu New Residence
The Cantonese Red Turban rebels carried out a genocidal campaign against the Hakkas during a revolt against the Qing dynasty. The Cantonese Red Turbans killed 13 Hakka village chiefs and 7,630 other Hakkas while on their way to Heshan where they killed another 1,320 Hakkas after conquering it.
The bloody Punti-Hakka Clan Wars, which eventually killed some 500,000 Hakkas (or quite possibly even more), saw large-scale massacres against the Hakkas by Cantonese forces. After the Hakka massacres against them, the Cantonese peasants butchered 500 Hakkas in a village located in the rural Enping county forcing the Hakkas to flee, but they were later all murdered as well when they were caught and massacred by Cantonese peasants, who spared neither women and children Hakka, killing 4,000 of those Hakkas. 2,000 people, which comprised half of the Hakka inhabitants of a village, were exterminated in another Cantonese attack. Large numbers of Hakkas were killed in other places as well by the Cantonese, with the assistance of the Xiang army.
Government officials mobilized officers and men from the local Cantonese peasants to kill the Hakkas, regained the Guanghai villages which was occupied by the Hakkas, and massacred the Hakkas. The number of Hakkas killed was tens of thousands in the Dalongdong area of Guanghai alone.
Cantonese overseas[edit]
The Cantonese murdered more than 70 Hakka fellow provincials in Shanghai under the justification of a Hakka conspiracy that the Jiaying group was surrendering the city to foreign control.[24] On 27 August 1925, villages in a county belonged to the Hakka minority were attacked, Chiang's Punti (Cantonese) men and soldiers did not hesitate to rape their women and pillage their homes.[25]
Resurfaced feelings of ethnic hatred and friction between the Hakkas and Cantonese in Perak, Malaya, led to the Larut Wars.
Upon arriving in Madagascar, the Cantonese colluded to prevent any Hakka migration to Madagascar.
By Guangxi people[edit]
More than 100,000 Hakkas were slaughtered by the locals in Guangxi province during another clan war. In October 1850, the Cantonese and Hakkas were hacking and killing each other for over 40 days in Guigang.[citation needed]
By other Yue[edit]
Between 1925 and 1926, thousands were killed and wounded when the ethnic hatred of the Hakkas by the natives of Lingao turned violent in northwestern Hainan.[26]
Culture[edit]
Main article: Hakka culture
Hakka culture has been largely shaped by the new environment, which they had to alter many aspects of their culture to adapt, which helped influence their architecture and cuisine. When the Hakka expanded into areas with pre-existing populations in the South, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or in public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education, however, this is by no means unique to the Hakkas as most of the other Han Chinese also culturally emphasized education.
Language[edit]
Main article: Hakka Chinese
Hakka Chinese sign
Hakka Chinese is the native Chinese variety of the Hakka people. Hakka Chinese is the closest Chinese variety to Gan Chinese in terms of phonetics, with scholars studies consider the late Old Gan together with Hakka Chinese and the Tongtai dialect of Jianghuai Mandarin to have been the lingua franca of the Southern dynasties.[27]
In Taiwan, the Ministry of Education named "Taiwanese Hakka Chinese" as one of the languages of Taiwan.[28]
Arts[edit]
Taiwanese Hakka opera at the Zhongyuan festival.
Hakkapop festival
Hakka hill song[edit]
Main article: Hakka hill song
Hakka hill songs are traditionally used by hillside farmers in parts of Taiwan and China, mainly for entertainment in the farming fields and courting practices. They are characterized by the strong, resonating melody and voice, which echo around hills and can be heard for up to a mile around the area. Hill songs can be considered a form of communication, as its participants often use it to communicate love songs or news.
Hakkapop[edit]
Hakkapop is a genre of Hakka pop music made primarily in China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Media[edit]
In Taiwan, there are seven Hakka Chinese radio channels. The Chinese radio station China National Radio's Sound of the Divine Land (神州之聲) has a Hakka Chinese radio break.
Taiwan's Hakka TV was the first Hakka Chinese TV channel in the world. Meizhou TV-2 was the first Hakka Chinese TV channel in China.
Food culture[edit]
Main article: Hakka cuisine
Hakka cuisine is known for the use of preserved meats and tofu as well as stewed and braised dishes. Some of the popular dishes are Yong Tau Foo and Lei Cha. Yong Tau Foo is a Hakka Chinese food consisting primarily of tofu that has been filled with either a ground meat mixture or fish paste (surimi). Lei cha (Chinese: 擂茶; pinyin: léi chá; lit. 'pounded tea'; pronounced [lěi ʈʂʰǎ]) or ground tea is a traditional Southern Chinese tea-based beverage or gruel that forms a part of Hakka cuisine.
Foot binding[edit]
Historically, Hakka women did not bind their feet when the practice was commonplace in China.[29]
Architecture[edit]
Main article: Hakka architecture
Tianluokeng Tulou cluster. Hukeng Town, Yongding County, Fujian.
Hakka people built several types of tulou and peasant fortified villages in the mountainous rural parts of far western Fujian and adjacent southern Jiangxi and northern Guangdong regions. A representative sample of Fujian Tulou (consisting of 10 buildings or building groups) in Fujian was inscribed in 2008 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[30]
Another very popular architectural style in northern east Guangdong, such as Xingning and Meixian, is Wrapped Dragon Village (Chinese: 圍龍屋; pinyin: wéilóngwū).
Religion[edit]
See also: Religion in China
Typical traditional hillside tombs. Hukeng Town, Yongding County, Fujian.
The religious practices of Hakka people are largely similar to those of other Han Chinese. Ancestor veneration is the primary form of religious expression.[31] One distinctively Hakka religious practice involves the worship of dragon deities.[32]
Mainland China[edit]
Meizhou Prefecture (in yellow) in Guangdong Province, where Xingning and Meixian are located.
Hakka populations are found in 13 out of the 27 provinces and autonomous regions of mainland China.
Guangdong[edit]
Christian missionaries with Hakka students of a girls' school in Waichow, Guangdong, 1921.
Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Meizhou and Heyuan as well as other towns such as Shenzhen, Jieyang, Dongguan and Huizhou. Hakkas live mostly in the northeast part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning–Meixian) area. Unlike their kin in Fujian, Hakka in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋; pinyin: wéilóngwū or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (四角樓; sìjǐaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu).
Fujian[edit]
Gun port of Chengqilou in a Hakka Fujian Tulou.
A firearm for defence against enemies in a Hakka Fujian Tulou.
Tradition states that the early Hakka ancestors traveling from north China entered Fujian first, then by way of the Ting River they traveled to Guangdong and other parts of China, as well as overseas. Thus, the Ting River is also regarded as the Hakka Mother River.
The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architecture known as the tulou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tulou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor contained a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors living spaces. Tulou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.
Today, Western Fujian is inhabited by 3 million Hakkas, scattered around villages in 10 counties (county-level 'cities' and districts) in Longyan and Sanming prefectures, 98% of whom are Hakkas living in Changting, Liancheng, Shanghang, Wuping, Yongding, Ninghua, Qingliu and Mingxi counties.[33]
Jiangxi[edit]
Jiangxi contains the second largest Hakka community. Nearly all of southern Jiangxi province is Hakka, especially in Ganzhou. In the Song dynasty, a large number of Han Chinese migrated to the delta area as the Court moved southward because invasion of northern minority. They lived in Jiangxi and intermixed with the She and Yao minorities. Ganzhou was the place that the Hakka have settled before migrating to Western Fujian and Eastern Guangdong. During the early Qing dynasty, there was a massive depopulation in Gannan due to the ravage of pestilence and war. However, Western Fujian and Eastern Guangdong suffered population explosion at the same time. Some edicts were issued to block the coastal areas, ordering coastal residents to move to the inland. The population pressure and the sharp contradiction of the land redistribution drove some residents to leave. Some of them moved back to Gannan, integrating with other Hakka people who lived there already for generations. Thus, the modern Gannan Hakka community was finally formed.[34]
Sichuan[edit]
The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1662–1722), after a tour of the land, decided the province of Sichuan had to be repopulated after the devastation caused by Zhang Xianzhong. Seeing the Hakka were living in poverty in the coastal regions in Guangdong province, the emperor encouraged the Hakkas in the south to migrate to Sichuan province. He offered financial assistance to those willing to resettle in Sichuan: eight ounces of silver per man and four ounces per woman or child.
Sichuan was originally the origin of the Deng lineage until one of them was hired as an official in Guangdong during the Ming dynasty but during the Qing plan to increase the population in 1671 they came to Sichuan again. Deng Xiaoping was born in Sichuan.[35]
Hunan[edit]
Hakka people are mainly concentrated in Liuyang and Liling villages.
Henan[edit]
As with those in Sichuan, many Hakka emigrated to Xinyang Prefecture (in Southern Henan Province), where Li Zicheng carried out a massacre in Guangzhou (now in Huangchuan) on 17 Jan, 1636.
Hong Kong[edit]
Sam Tung Uk Museum
During the 15th century to 19th century, Hong Kong was in the imperial district of Xin'an (now Shenzhen) County.[36] The 1819 gazetteer lists 570 Punti and 270 Hakka contemporary settlements in the whole district.[37] However, the area covered by Xin'an county is greater than what was to become the British imperial enclave of Hong Kong by 1898. Although there had been settlers originating from the mainland proper even before the Tang dynasty, historical records of those people are non-extant, only evidence of settlement from archaeological sources can be found.[38] The New Territories lowland areas had been settled originally by several clan lineages in Kam Tin, Sheung Shui, Fanling, Yuen Long, Lin Ma Hang and Tai Po and hence termed the Punti before the arrival of the Hakka, and fishing families of the Tanka and Hoklo groups to the area.[39] Since the prime farming land had already been farmed, the Hakka land dwellers settled in the less accessible and more hilly areas. Hakka settlements can be found widely distributed around the Punti areas, but in smaller communities. Many are found on coastal areas in inlets and bays surrounded by hills.
Hakka-speaking communities are thought to have arrived in the Hong Kong area after the rescinding of the coastal evacuation order in 1688,[40] such as the Hakka speaking Lee clan lineage of Wo Hang, one of whose ancestors is recorded as arriving in the area in 1688.
As the strong Punti lineages dominated most of the north western New Territories, Hakka communities began to organise local alliances of lineage communities such as the Sha Tau Kok Alliance of Ten or Shap Yeuk as Patrick Hase writes.[40] Hakka villages from Wo Hang to the west and Yantian to the east of Sha Tau Kok came to use it as a local market town and it became the center of Hakka dominance. Further, the Shap Yeuk's land reclamation project transforming marshland to arable farmland with the creation of dykes and levees to prevent storm flooding during the early 19th century shows an example of how local cooperation and the growing affluence of the landed lineages in the Alliance of Ten provided the strong cultural, socioeconomic Hakka influence on the area.
Farming and cultivation has been the traditional occupations of Hakka families from imperial times up until the 1970s. Farming was mostly done by Hakka women while their menfolk sought labouring jobs in the towns and cities. Many men entered indentured labour abroad as was common from the end of the 19th century to the Second World War. Post war, males took the opportunity to seek work in Britain and other countries later to send for their families to join them once they sent enough money back to cover travel costs.
As post war education became available to all children in Hong Kong, a new educated class of Hakka became more mobile in their careers. Many moved to the government planned new towns which sprung up from the 1960s. The rural Hakka population began to decline as people moved abroad, and away to work in the urban areas. By the end of the 1970s, agriculture was firmly in the decline in Hakka villages.[41] Today, there are still Hakka villages around Hong Kong, but being remote, many of their inhabitants have moved to the post war new towns like Sheung Shui, Tai Po, Sha Tin and further afield.
Taiwan[edit]
Hakka women in traditional attire in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, pre-1945.
The Hakka population in Taiwan is around 4.6 million people today.[42] Hakka people comprise about 15 to 20% of the population of Taiwan and form the second-largest ethnic group in the country. They are descended largely from Hakka who migrated from southern and northern Guangdong and western Fujian.[6] The early Hakka immigrants were the island's first agriculturalists and formed the nucleus of the Chinese population, numbering tens of thousands at the time.[43] They resided in "savage border districts, where land could be had for the taking, and where a certain freedom from official oppression was ensured."[44] Back then the Hakka on Taiwan had gained a reputation with the authorities of being turbulent and lawless.[45]
In the past the Hakka in Taiwan owned matchlock muskets. Han people traded and sold matchlock muskets to the Taiwanese aborigines. The Aboriginals used their matchlock muskets to defeat the Americans in the Formosa Expedition. During the Sino-French War the Hakka and Aboriginals used their matchlock muskets against the French in the Keelung Campaign and Battle of Tamsui.
Liu Mingchuan took measures to reinforce Tamsui, in the river nine torpedo mines were planted and the entrance was blocked with ballast boats filled with stone which were sunk on 3 September, matchlock armed "Hakka hill people" were used to reinforce the mainland Chinese battalion, and around the British Consulate and Customs House at the Red Fort hilltop, Shanghai Arsenal manufactured Krupp guns were used to form an additional battery.[46]
Taoyuan Hakka Culture Hall, Taiwan
Lin Ch'ao-tung (林朝棟) was the leader of the Hakka militia recruited by Liu Ming-ch'uan.[47]
The Hakka used their matchlock muskets to resist the Japanese invasion of Taiwan and Hakka Han people and Aboriginals conducted an insurgency against Japanese rule. The Hakka rose up against the Japanese in the Beipu uprising.
Taiwan's Hakka population concentrates in Hsinchu and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County and around Zhongli District in Taoyuan City and Meinong District in Kaohsiung and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualien County and Taitung County. In recent decades,[when?] many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei and Taichung.
On 28 December 1988, 14,000[failed verification] Hakka protestors took to the streets in Taipei to demand the Nationalist government to "return our mother tongue", carrying portraits of Sun Yat-sen.[48] The movement was later termed "1228 Return Our Mother Tongue Movement".
Hakka-related affairs in Taiwan are regulated by the Hakka Affairs Council. Hakka-related tourist attractions in Taiwan are Dongshih Hakka Cultural Park, Hakka Round House, Kaohsiung Hakka Cultural Museum, Meinong Hakka Culture Museum, New Taipei City Hakka Museum, Taipei Hakka Culture Hall and Taoyuan Hakka Culture Hall.
Hakkas elsewhere[edit]
Hakka Round House in Miaoli County.
There is a Hakka saying, "有陽光的地方就有華人,有華人的地方就有客家人", which literally means "Wherever there is sunshine, there are Chinese; wherever there are Chinese, there are Hakka."
The Hakka have emigrated to many countries worldwide, notably Americas, Guyana, Suriname, Britain, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam (known as Ngái people), Thailand, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Cambodia, Burma and French Polynesia.
Hakka people also emigrated to many countries in Europe, including Britain, Italy, France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Sweden and Netherlands. They also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago), in the Americas, particularly in the United States, Canada, Panama, Argentina and Brazil, as well as in Australia. Most expatriate Hakkas in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong as many migrated there when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the economic depression in Hong Kong.
Southeast Asia[edit]
Vietnam[edit]
There are two groups of Hakka in Vietnam. One is known as Ngái people and lives along the border with China in Northern Vietnam. Another group are Chinese immigrants to Southern Vietnam, known as Người Hẹ and is located around Saigon and Vũng Tàu.
Cambodia[edit]
About 65% of the Hakka trace their roots back to Meizhou and Heyuan prefectures in Guangdong Province. About 70% of the Hakkas are found in Phnom Penh where they dominate professions in the field of Traditional Chinese Medicine and shoemaking. Hakkas are also found in Takéo Province, Stung Treng and Rattanakiri who consist of vegetable growers and rubber plantation workers. Hakka communities in the provinces migrated to Cambodia through Tonkin and Cochinchina in the 18th and 19th centuries.[49]
Thailand[edit]
The Hakkas association of Pak Chong
There are no records as to when Hakka descendants arrived in Thailand. In 1901, Yu Cipeng, a Hakka member of The League Society of China came to visit Thailand and found that the establishment of many varied organizations among the Hakka was not good for unity. He tried to bring the two parties together and persuaded them to dissolve the associations in order to set up a new united one. In 1909 The Hakka Society of Siam was established and Chao Phraya Yommarat (Pan Sukhum), then interior minister, was invited to preside over the opening ceremony for the establishment of the society's nameplate, located in front of the Chinese shrine "Lee Tee Biao". Yang Liqing was its first president.[50]
Singapore[edit]
In 2010, 232,914 people in Singapore reported Hakka ancestry. Singapore's most prominent Hakka is its founding prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew.
Malaysia[edit]
Muar Hakka Association in Johor.
Hakka people form the second largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia, particularly in the peninsula, with several prominent Hakka figures emerging during colonial British rule. There are 1,729,000 people of Hakka ancestry in Malaysia as of 2016.[51] Chung Keng Quee, "Captain China" of Perak and Penang, was the founder of the mining town of Taiping, the leader of the Hai San, a millionaire philanthropist and an innovator in the mining of tin, having been respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. Another notable Hakka was Yap Ah Loy, who founded Kuala Lumpur and was a Kapitan Cina of the settlement from 1868 to 1885, bringing significant economic contributions and was also an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.
In the district of Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan, Hakka people make up more than 90% of the Chinese subgroup with dialect itself acting as a lingua franca there. This has contributed greatly to the fact that the place is commonly known among Hakka Chinese as "Hakka Village". The greatest concentration of Hakkas in northern peninsular Malaysia is in Ipoh, Perak and in Kuala Lumpur and its satellite cities in Selangor. Concentrations of Hakka people in Ipoh and surrounding areas are particularly high. The Hakkas in the Kinta Valley came mainly from the Jiaying Prefecture or Meixian, while those in Kuala Lumpur are mainly of Huizhou origin.[52]
A large number of Hakka people are also found in Sarawak, particularly in the city of Kuching and Miri, where there is a notable population of Hakka people who speak the "Ho Poh"[clarification needed] variant of Hakka.
In Sabah, most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. In the 1990s, the Hakkas formed around 57% of the total ethnic Chinese population in Sabah.[53] Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah to such an extent that Chinese of other subgroups who migrate to Sabah from other states in Malaysia and elsewhere usually learn the Hakka dialect, with varying degrees of fluency.[54]
In 1882 the North Borneo Chartered Company opted to bring in Hakka labourers from Longchuan County, Guangdong. The first batch of 96 Hakkas brought to Sabah landed in Kudat on 4 April 1883 under the leadership of Luo Daifeng (Hakka: Lo Tai Fung). In the following decades Hakka immigrants settled throughout the state, with their main population centres in Kota Kinabalu (then known as Jesselton) and its surroundings (in the districts of Tuaran, Penampang, Ranau, Papar, Kota Belud as well as a lesser extent to Kota Marudu), with a significant minority residing in Sandakan (mainly ex-Taiping revolutionists) and other large populations in other towns and districts, most notably in Tawau, Tenom, Kuala Penyu, Tambunan, Lahad Datu, Semporna, Sipitang, Beaufort, Keningau and Kudat. The British felt the development of North Borneo was too slow and in 1920 they decided to encourage Hakka immigration into Sabah. In 1901, the total Chinese population in Sabah was 13897; by 1911, it had risen 100% to 27801.[55] Hakka immigration began to taper off during World War 2 and declined to a negligible level in the late 1940s.
Indonesia[edit]
Indonesian Hakka Museum in Jakarta.
Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Riau Islands such as in Bangka Island and Belitung as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Borneo in the 19th century, predecessor to early Singapore residents. In the early 20th century, new arrivals joined their compatriots as traders, merchants and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, etc.
In Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek, from the Hokkien (Southern Min) pronunciation kheh of 客 (Hakka: hak). However, the use of the word 'Khek' is limited mainly to areas where the local Chinese population is mainly of Hokkien origin. In places where other Chinese subgroups predominate, the term 'Hakka' is still the more commonly used.
Bangka (in Indonesia)[edit]
Belinyu, a little Hakka town in northern part of Bangka Island.
Hakka also live in Indonesia's largest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung Islands province. They are the second majority ethnic group after Malays. The Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia.
The first group of Hakka in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in the 18th century from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have remained on the island along with the native Malay. Their situation was much different from those of Chinese and native populations of other regions, where legal cultural conflicts were prevalent since the 1960s until 1999, by which Indonesian Chinese had finally regained their cultural freedoms. Here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festivals, while in other regions they were strictly banned by government legislation prior to 1999.[56] Hakka on the island of Bangka spoke Hopo dialect mixed with Malay, especially in younger generations. Hakka spoken in Belinyu area in Bangka is considered to be standard.
West Kalimantan (in Indonesia)[edit]
Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside Teochew speaking Chinese. While the Teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the Hakka are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their Hakka dialect is originally Hopo which influenced by Teochew dialect and also has vocabulary from the local Malay and Dayak tribes. The Hakka were instrumental in the Lanfang Republic.
The Hakka in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.
The Hakka in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speak a different standard of Hakka dialect to the Hakkas along the Kapuas River. Originally West Borneo has diverse Hakka origin but during the 19th century, a large people came from Jiexi so more Hakkas in the region speak Hopo mixed with Wuhua and Huilai accents that eventually formed the dialect of Singkawang Hakka.[57]
Jakarta (in Indonesia)[edit]
Hakka people in Jakarta mainly have roots from Meizhou, who came in the 19th century. Secondary migration of the Hakkas from other provinces like Bangka Belitung Islands and West Borneo came later.
East Timor[edit]
Main article: Chinese people in East Timor
A mixed wedding of East Timorese and Hakka in East Timor, where the four flower girls and the mother of the bride on the far right are of Hakka descent.
There was already a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the 1975 Indonesian invasion. According to an estimate by the local Chinese Timorese association, the Hakka population of Portuguese Timor in 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicities from Macau, which like East Timor was a Portuguese colony). According to a book source, an estimated 700 Hakka were killed within the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakka had already escaped to neighbouring Australia. The recent re-establishment of Hakka associations in the country registered approximately 2,400 Hakka remaining, organised into some 400 families, including part-Timorese ones.
The Timorese Hakka diaspora can currently be found in Darwin, Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne in Australia; in Portugal; in Macau; and in other parts of the world in smaller numbers. They often are highly educated and many continue their education in either Taiwan or the People's Republic of China, while a majority of the younger generation prefer to study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to be genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, as partially related to the political situation in East Timor at the time. As Asian countries were neither willing to accept them as residents nor grant them political asylum to the Timorese in general, they were forced to live as stateless persons for some time. Despite this condition, many Hakka had become successful, establishing restaurant chains, shops, supermarkets and import operations in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2000, some Hakka families had returned and invested in businesses in the newborn nation.[citation needed]
South Asia[edit]
India[edit]
There used to be 1500 Hakkas largely at Tangra and Bombay, arriving after the great British Raj violence and chaos.
However, from the 1960s, after armed fighting broke out, there has been a steady migration to other countries, which accelerated in the succeeding decades. The majority moved to Britain and Canada, while others went to the United States, Australia, Taiwan, Austria and Sweden. The predominant dialect of Hakka in these communities is Meixian.
Hakkas are the largest Chinese community in India after Chinese Cantonese people of Indian ancestry. During the time he held office in Calcutta until the late 2000s, Yap Kon Chung, the Hakka ambassador, protected and helped the Chinese residents in India. Specifically, during the Sino-Indian war of 1962, oppression of Sino-Indian residents accused of Anti-Indian sentiment by the Indians was escalated. Yap then made appeals to Prime Minister Nehru to bridge a bond between the Indians and Chinese persons. During his office, he was also the principal at a highly regarded school as well as a political facilitator who helped many families migrate to other countries such as Britain, Canada, the United States and parts of Europe until he himself migrated to Toronto, Canada to join his family. Yap died surrounded by family on 18 April 2014, at the age of 97.[citation needed]
Africa[edit]
South Africa[edit]
Some Hakka people, notably from Taiwan[citation needed], migrated to South Africa.
Mauritius[edit]
The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most Mauritian Hakkas who emigrated to Mauritius in the mid-1940s came from Northeastern Guangdong, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.
As of 2008, the total population of Sino-Mauritian, consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.
Réunion[edit]
Many Chinese people in Réunion are of Hakka origin.[58] They either came to Réunion as indentured workers or as voluntary migrants.[58]
Americas[edit]
United States[edit]
Hakka from all over the world have also migrated to the USA. One group is the New England Hakka Association, which reminds its members not to forget their roots. One example is a blog by Ying Han Brach called "Searching for My Hakka Roots". Another group is the Hakka Association of New York, which aims to promote Hakka culture across the five boroughs of New York City.[59] In the mid-1970s, the Hakka Benevolent Association in San Francisco was founded by Tu Chung. The association has strong ties with the San Francisco community and offers scholarships to their young members. There are significant Hakka American communities in San Francisco, San Jose, Seattle and Los Angeles.
There are around 20,000 Taiwanese Hakkas in the United States.[citation needed]
Canada[edit]
There are several Hakka communities across Canada. One group that embraces on Hakka culture in this diverse country is the Hakka Heritage Alliance. Also see Jamaica.
Jamaica[edit]
Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka; they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1854 and 1884, nearly 5,000 Hakkas arrived in Jamaica in three major voyages. The Hakkas seized the opportunity to venture into a new land, embracing the local language, customs and culture. During the 1960s and 1970s, substantial migration of Jamaican Hakkas to the US and Canada have occurred.[60] The Hakkas in Jamaica came mainly from Dongguan, Huiyang and Bao'an counties of Guangdong Province.[52]
Suriname[edit]
The Chinese in Suriname are homogeneous as a group and the great majority can trace their roots to Huidong'an (惠东安). One famous Hakka is President Henk Chin A Sen.[52]
Guyana[edit]
Chinese people are a small minority at Guyana. Guyana's most prominent Hakka Chinese is its first president, Arthur Chung.
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
Hakka people first arrived in Australia in the 1880s. Hakka arrivals were halted along with other Chinese immigrants during the White Australia Policy era from 1901 to 1973 and resumed thereafter. Some estimate that there are now 100,000 Hakka people in Australia.[61]
New Zealand[edit]
There are people of Hakka descent in New Zealand.[62][63]
Tahiti[edit]
Hakka people first arrived in Papara, Tahiti in 1865 [64]
Population[edit]
At a 1994 seminar of the World Hakka Association held in Meixian, statistics showed that there were 6,562,429 Hakkas living abroad.[22]
In 2000, the worldwide population of Hakka was estimated at 36,059,500 and in 2010 it was estimated at 40,745,200.[citation needed]
Another estimate is that approximately 36 million Hakka people are scattered throughout the world. More than 31 million lives in over 200 cities and counties spread throughout five provinces of China (Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Fujian, Hunan) as well as Hong Kong.[65]
Region
Hakkapopulation
Chinesepopulation
Totalpopulation
Percentage ofChinese population
Majority
Source
Taiwan
4,202,000
22,813,000
23,374,000
18.4%
Second largest
Hakka Affairs Council, Taiwan, 2014[66]
Hong Kong
1,250,000 est
6,643,000
7,300,000
18.8%
Second largest
Prof Lau Yee Cheung, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010 [67]
Singapore
232,914
2,794,000
3,771,700
8.3%
Fourth largest
Singapore census, 2010[68]
Malaysia
1,650,000
6,550,000
30,116,000
25.2%
Second largest
Malaysia census, 2015[69][70]
Thailand
1,502,846
9,392,792
67,091,371
16.0%
Second largest
The World Factbook, 2012[71]
Hakkaology[edit]
Tsai Ing-wen, a Taiwanese Hakka descent, President of Republic of China (Taiwan), attended the "Lecturer Hakka Language Radio Broadcasting", to give a speech.
Hakkaology (客家學) is the academic study of the Hakka people and their culture. It encompasses their origins, identity, language, traits, architecture, customs, food, literature, history, politics, economics, diaspora and genealogical records.
The study of the Hakka people first drew attention to Chinese and foreign scholars, adventurers, missionaries, travellers and authors of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom era. Ernest John Eitel, a prominent German missionary, was one of those who took a great interest in this area.[72] Theodore Hamberg, who also wrote an early English-language account of the Taiping Rebellion, is also considered a forefather of Hakka studies in the West.[citation needed]
Many foreign scholars were full of admiration of the Hakka people. According to prominent sinologist Victor Purcell, the Hakkas "have a stubbornness of disposition that distinguishes them from their fellow Chinese".
Political and military leadership[edit]
See also: List of notable Hakkas
The Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of modern Chinese and overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political, military leaders, as well as presidents, prime ministers.[29]
Hakkas started and formed the backbone of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom,[73] the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known as Jintian Uprising, originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi province. It was led by the failed Qing scholar, Hong Xiuquan, who was influenced by Protestant missionaries. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces.
The Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured towns and cities from the defenders, the Taiping troops killed all Manchu children because the Taiping troops with fatal rocks smashed Manchu children's heads[74] Four of the six top Taiping leaders are Hakkas: Hong Xiuquan, Feng Yunshan, Yang Xiuqing and Shi Dakai. Hong Rengan, the Premier of the Kingdom, was the first person in China to advocate modern-style federal government and opening up reforms. The kingdom lasted for thirteen years, from 1851 to 1864.
Hakkas continued to play leading roles during the Xinhai Revolution that overthrew the Qing dynasty and the republican years of China. When Sun Yat-sen was small, together with other children in his village, he used to listen to an old Taiping soldier telling them stories about the heroics of the Taipings.[75] This influenced Sun and he proclaimed that he shall be the second Hong Xiuquan. Sun was to become the Father of modern China and many of his contemporaries were his fellow Hakkas.[76]
Zheng Shiliang, a medical student and classmate of Sun, led the Huizhou Uprising (惠州起義) in 1900. Huizhou is an area in Guangdong province where most of the population are Hakkas. Deng Zhiyu led the Huizhou Qinühu Uprising (惠州七女湖起義) in 1907. All of the Four Martyrs of Honghuagang (紅花崗四烈士) are Hakkas – one of which was Wen Shengcai who assassinated the Manchu general, Fu Qi, in 1911.
Brothers Hsieh Yi-qiao and Hsieh Liang-mu raised the 100,000 Chinese Yuan needed for the Huanghuagang Uprising from the overseas Chinese community in Nanyang (Southeast Asia) in 1911. At least 27 of the 85 (initially 72 because only 72 bodies could be identified) martyrs of Huanghuagang are Hakkas. Yao Yuping led the Guangdong Northern Expeditionary Force (廣東北伐軍) to successive victories against the Qing Army which were vital in the successful defence of the Provisional Government in Nanjing and Puyi's early abdication.[77]
Liao Zhongkai and Deng Keng were Sun Yat-sen's main advisors on financial and military matters respectively. A big majority of the soldiers in the Guangdong Army (粵軍) were Hakkas.[78] Other Hakkas for example, Eugene Chen, was an outstanding foreign minister in the 1920s. Some of the best of Nationalist China generals: Chen Mingshu, Chen Jitang, Xue Yue, Zhang Fakui, and Luo Zhuoying amongst many others are Hakka as well.
The Hakka occupied communist Bases reached a peak of more than 30,000 square kilometres and a population that numbered more than three million, covering mostly Hakka areas of two provinces: Jiangxi and Fujian. The Hakka city of Ruijin was the capital of the republic.[79]
When it was overrun in 1934 by the Nationalist army in the Fifth of its Encirclement Campaigns, the Communists began their famous Long March with 86,000 soldiers, of which more than 70% were Hakkas. The Fifth Encirclement Campaign was led by Nationalist Hakka general, Xue Yue. During the retreat, the Communists managed to strike a deal with the Hakka warlord controlling Guangdong province, Chen Jitang, to let them pass through Guangdong without a fight. When the People's Liberation Army had its rank structure from 1955 to 1964, the highest number of generals, totalling 54, came from the small Hakka county of Xingguo in Jiangxi province. The county had also previously produced 27 Nationalist generals. Xingguo county is thus known as the Generals' County.[79]
During the same period, there were 132 Hakkas out of 325 generals in Jiangxi, 63 Hakkas out of 83 generals in Fujian, and 8 Hakkas out of 12 generals in Guangdong respectively, not mentioning those from Guangxi, Sichuan and Hunan. The number could have been significantly higher if the majority of the personnel who started the Long March had not perished before reaching its destination. Only less than 7,000 of the original 86,000 personnel had survived it.[79]
Prominent Hakka communist leaders include: Marshal Zhu De, the founder of the Red Army, later known as the People's Liberation Army; Ye Ting, Commander-in-chief, New Fourth Army, one of the two main Chinese communist forces fighting the Japanese during the World War 2 (the other main communist force, Eighth Route Army, was commanded by Zhu De); Marshal Ye Jianying, governor of Guangdong; and Hu Yaobang, where the memorial for his funeral sparked off a pro-democracy movement which led to the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989. In Guangdong, China's most prosperous province, the "Hakka clique" (客家帮) has consistently dominated the provincial government. Guangdong's Hakka governors include Ye Jianying, Ding Sheng, Ye Xuanping and Huang Huahua.[80]
Besides playing leading roles in all the three major revolutions of China, Hakkas had also been prominently involved in many of the wars against foreign intrusion of China. During the First Opium War, Lai Enjue led the Qing navy against the British at the Battle of Kowloon in 1839 and Yan Botao commanded the coastal defence at the Battle of Amoy in 1841. Feng Zicai and Liu Yongfu were instrumental in the defeat of the French at the Battle of Bang Bo which led to the French Retreat from Lạng Sơn and the conclusion of the war in 1885. When the Japanese invaded Taiwan, the Hakka militia forces led by Qiu Fengjia, were able to put up a stiff resistance to the Japanese when the Qing army could not. During the Battle of Shanghai in the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the heroism of Xie Jinyuan and his troops, known as the "Eight Hundred Warriors" (八百壯士) in Chinese history, gained international attention and lifted flagging Chinese morale in their successful Defence of Sihang Warehouse against the better equipped Japanese. However, in the ensuing Battle of Nanjing, seventeen Nationalist generals were killed in action, of which six were Hakkas.
During the war against the Japanese, both the commander-in-chiefs of the two main Chinese communist forces, Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army, are Hakkas: Zhu De and Ye Ting. On the Nationalist side, Xue Yue and Zhang Fakui were commander-in-chiefs for the 9th and 4th War Zones respectively. Called the "Patton of Asia" by the West and the "God of War" (戰神) by the Chinese, Xue was China's most outstanding general during the war, having won several major battles that killed hundreds of thousands of Japanese troops. Luo Zhuoying was the commander-in-chief for the 1st Route Expeditionary Forces, Burma (China's first participation of a war overseas), 1942.
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong from 1941 to 1945, the Dong River Column guerrilla force (東江縱隊) was a constant harassment to the Japanese troops. The force, whose members were mostly Hakkas and led by its commander Zeng Sheng, was highly successful due to its strong Hakka network. Noteworthy accomplishments of the partisan guerrilla force included the aiding of British and Commonwealth (British Raj Colonial rulers) prisoners of war to escape successfully from Japanese internment camps and the rescuing of twenty American pilots who parachuted into Hong Kong when they were shot down.[81]
Overseas Hakkas have also been prominent politicians in the countries they had migrated to, many of which are leading political figures of the countries or the Chinese communities there. Since the 20th century, there have been twenty Hakkas who had become heads of state or heads of government in different countries.[82]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Hakka people.
In popular culture[edit]
The Guest People (Chinese: 客家之歌), a 1997 30-episode Singapore television drama about four young Hakka men who migrated from China to Singapore in the 1950s and were caught in the tumultuous anti-colonial period of the country's history. The Hakka-language version of the drama was broadcast in Taiwan. The drama was nominated for the Best Drama Series awards in the Asian Television Awards and the New York Television Festival, 1998.
1895 or Blue Brave: The Legend of Formosa 1895 (Chinese: 1895乙未), a 2008 Taiwan Hakka-language film about the Hakka militias fighting the Japanese during the Japanese invasion of Taiwan in 1895. The edited version for television won the Best Drama Series award in the Asian Television Awards, 2009.
The Great Southern Migration (Chinese: 大南迁 or 葛藤凹), a 2012 32-episode China television drama about the Hakkas' migration to Southern China during the late Tang dynasty in the 9th century.
Hakka Women (Chinese: 客家女人) or To Be or Not to Be (Chinese: 来生不做香港人), a 2014 25-episode Hong Kong television drama about the lives of two Hakka sisters separated when young, one in Hong Kong and the other in China.
Gold Leaf (Chinese: 茶金), a 2021 Taiwanese period drama about the booming tea trade in Taiwan during the 1950 and a Hakka Taiwanese tea trader family owned tea exporting company.
See also[edit]
Hakka architecture
Hakka cuisine
Hakka hill songs
Hakka language
Han opera (Hakka opera)
Larut War
Punti-Hakka Clan Wars
Tea-picking opera
Further reading[edit]
People and identity[edit]
Char, Tin-Yuke (1969). The Hakka Chinese – Their Origin & Folk Songs. Jade Mountain Press.
Eberhard, Wolfram (1974). Studies in Hakka Folktales. Taipei: Chinese Association for Folklore.
Kiang, Clyde (July 1991). The Hakka Search for a Homeland. Allegheny Press. ISBN 9780910042611.
Constable, Nicole, ed. (1996). Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295984872.
Leong, Sow-Theng (1997). Wright, Tim (ed.). Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin and Their Neighbors. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804728577.
Chung, Yoon-Ngan (2005). The Hakka Chinese: Their Origin, Folk Songs and Nursery Rhymes. Poseidon Books. ISBN 978-1921005503.
Leo, Jessieca (September 2015). Global Hakka: Hakka Identity in the Remaking. BRILL. ISBN 9789004300262.
Politics[edit]
Erbaugh, Mary S. (December 1992). "The Secret History of the Hakkas: The Chinese Revolution as a Hakka Enterprise". The China Quarterly. 132 (132): 937–968. doi:10.1017/S0305741000045495. JSTOR 654189. S2CID 154584671.
Spence, Jonathan D. (December 1996). God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393315561.
Zhang, Delai (2002). The Hakkas of Sabah: A Survey of Their Impact on the Modernization of the Bornean Malaysian State. Sabah Theological Seminary. ISBN 9789834084004.
Yong, Kee Howe (July 2013). The Hakkas of Sarawak: Sacrificial Gifts in Cold War Era Malaysia. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781442615465.
Lee, Wei Ling (January 2015). Yap, Koon Hong (ed.). A Hakka Woman's Singapore Stories: My Life as a Daughter, Doctor and Diehard Singaporean. Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814642477.
Liu, L. Larry (January 2015). Hakkas in Power: A Study of Chinese Political Leadership in East and Southeast Asia, and South America. Create Space Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 9781505429435.
Language[edit]
Lee, T.H. (1955). Hakka Lessons for Malayan Students. Government Federation of Malaya.
Tsang, Joseph Mang Kin (January 2003). The Hakka Epic. President's Fund for Creative Writing in English. ISBN 9789990397406.
Chen, Matthew Y.; Lian, Hee Wee; Yan, Xiuhong (2004). The Paradox of Hakka Tone Sandhi. Dept of Chinese Studies, National University of Singapore. ISBN 9789810519438.
Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (June 2010). The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521133678.
Religion[edit]
Constable, Nicole (August 1994). Christian Souls and Chinese Spirits: A Hakka Community in Hong Kong. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520083844.
Lutz, Jessie G.; Lutz, Rolland Ray (January 1998). Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Christianity, 1850-1900: With the Autobiographies of Eight Hakka Christians, and Commentary. Routledge. ISBN 9780765600387.
Christofferson, Ethan (September 2012). Negotiating Identity: Exploring Tensions between Being Hakka and Being Christian in Northwestern Taiwan. Wipf & Stock Publishers. ISBN 9781610975032.
Food[edit]
Anusasananan, Linda Lau (October 2012). The Hakka Cookbook: Chinese Soul Food from around the World. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520273283.
Family stories[edit]
Tan, Amy (October 1995). The Hundred Secret Senses. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780399141157. The book was shortlisted for the 1996 Orange Prize for Fiction.[83]
Lee, J.P. (January 2004). Breaking the Curse of the Green Dragon (A Hakka Story). Instrument of Truth. ISBN 9789810480424.
Chin, Woon Ping (June 2008). Hakka Soul: Memories, Migrations and Meals. University of Hawaii. ISBN 9780824832896.
Huang, Suhua (April 2012). A Faithful Reading Partner: A Story from a Hakka Village. AuthorHouse. ISBN 9781468562675.
Lampotang, Peggy (January 2014). The Coral Heart: A Shopkeeper's Journey. Atelier d'ecriture. ISBN 9789990336924.
Sze, Elsie (February 2014). Ghost Cave: A Novel of Sarawak. Hong Kong Women in Publishing Society. ISBN 978-1496073945.
Hsiung, C. Fong (September 2014). Picture Bride. Mawenzi House/TSAR Publishers. ISBN 9781927494394.
Lin Ung, Charlene (March 2015). Nam Moi: A Young Girl's Story of Her Family's Escape from Vietnam. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 9781508700791.
Madison, Paula Williams (April 2015). Finding Samuel Lowe: China, Jamaica, Harlem. Amistad. ISBN 9780062331632.
References[edit]
^ a b Rubinstein, Murray A. (2004), "Rethinking Taiwanese and Chinese Identity: Melissa J. Brown's Is Taiwan Chinese?" (PDF), iir.nccu.edu.tw, Institute of International Relations, vol. 40, pp. 454–458, ISSN 1013-2511, OCLC 206031459, archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2011
^ a b "客家文化探密:怀念先人 感念生活 客家人闹元宵". news.sina.com.cn.
^ "Hakka culture GuangdongCulture". Newsgd.com. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ Yen, Ching-hwang (21 July 2008). The Chinese In Southeast Asia and Beyond: Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions. World Scientific. p. 379. ISBN 978-981-4471-99-2.
^ LaCroix, Frederick E. (2009). The sky rained heroes: A journey from war to remembrance. Austin: Synergy Books. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-9821601-3-8.
^ a b c "The Hakka: The Jews of Asia". Edu.ocac.gov.tw. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ Li, Hui; Pan, Wu-Yun; Wen, Bo; Yang, Ning-Ning; Jin, Jian-Zhong; Jin, Li; Lu, Da-Ru (September 2003). "Origin of Hakka and Hakkanese: a genetics analysis". Acta Genetica Sinica. 30 (9): 873–880. PMID 14577381.
^ "Welcome to Longyan Municipal People's Government, PRC". English.longyan.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 6 April 2014. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ Erbaugh, Mary S. (December 1992). "The Secret History of the Hakkas: The Chinese Revolution as a Hakka Enterprise". The China Quarterly. 132 (132): 937–968. doi:10.1017/S0305741000045495. JSTOR 654189. S2CID 154584671.
^ Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J., eds. (2003). The Sino-Tibetan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1129-5.
^ "Hakka made an official language". 30 December 2017.
^ "The Hakka People". 全球華文網路教育中心.
^ Kuo, Huei-Ying. Networks beyond Empires: Chinese Business and Nationalism in Hong Kong ….
^ a b c Chen, Jieming; Zheng, Houfeng; Bei, Jin-Xin; Sun, Liangdan; Jia, Wei-hua; Li, Tao; Zhang, Furen; Seielstad, Mark; Zeng, Yi-Xin; Zhang, Xuejun; Liu, Jianjun (1 December 2009). "Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 85 (6): 775–785. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.016. PMC 2790583. PMID 19944401.
^ Herold Jacob Wiens (1954). "Chapter VIII: Ethnic Distribution". China's march toward the tropics: a discussion of the southward penetration of China's culture, peoples, and political control in relation to the non-Han-Chinese peoples of south China and in the perspective of historical and cultural geography. Shoe String Press. p. 270. LCCN 54013401. OCLC 576470153. taste which alone are sufficient to demonstrate that the ancestors of the Hakka had long been in the ranks of the Han-Chinese civilization. In the Hakka region, more than elsewhere in Ling-nan, are such excellent old names as Fu-yung-chang (Hibiscus Range), Chin-p'ing Shan (Brocade-screen Mountains), Sung-yuan-ch'i (Pine-springs)
^ Constable, Nicole (2005). Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad. Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press. p. 9. ISBN 9780295984872.
^ a b Hu, SP; Luan, JA; Li, B; Chen, JX; Cai, KL; Huang, LQ; Xu, XY (January 2007). "Genetic link between Chaoshan and other Chinese Han populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (1): 140–50. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20460. PMID 16883565.
^ a b c d e f Wang, WZ; Wang, CY; Cheng, YT; Xu, AL; Zhu, CL; Wu, SF; Kong, QP; Zhang, YP (January 2010). "Tracing the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by mitochondrial DNA analysis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 141 (1): 124–30. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21124. PMID 19591216.
^ "Related Topics: Non-legal Considerations: Language". Taiwandocuments.org. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ Cheung, Sidney C.H. (1998). On the south China track: Perspectives on anthropological research and teaching. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 160. ISBN 978-962-441-540-7.
^ Choon, Yoon Ngan (2005). The Hakka Chinese: Their Origin, Folk Songs And Nursery Rhymes. BURLEIGH MDC QLD. 4220, AUSTRALIA: Poseidon Books. ISBN 978-1-921005-50-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ a b Lee, Khoon Choy (2006). Pioneers of modern China : understanding the inscrutable Chinese. River Edge, New Jersey: World Scientific Publishing. p. 62. ISBN 9789812566188.
^ The Hakka Odyssey & their Taiwan homeland. p. 120, Clyde Kiang. 1992
^ Goodman, Bryna (20 October 1995). Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853–1937. p. 80. ISBN 9780520915459.
^ The Broken Wave: The Chinese Communist Peasant Movement, 1922–1928, Volume 90 By Roy Hofheinz [1]
^ Bianco, Lucien (4 March 2015). Peasants without the Party: Grassroots Movements in Twentieth-Century China: Grassroots Movements in Twentieth-Century China. Routledge. ISBN 9781317463108 – via Google Books.
^ Lu Guoyao (魯國堯), On Gan-Hakka and the Tongtai dialect derived from lingua franca of Southern Dynasties (客、贛、通泰方言源於南朝通語說), 2003, ISBN 7-5343-5499-4, pages 123-135
^ 黃玉振 (25 May 2011). "不僅只有台灣閩南語,台灣客家語也是「台語」!". 行政院客家委員會. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2012. 只要是共同生長於台灣這塊土地上的所有族群的成員,他們不僅都是台灣人,而且他們所操持的族群語言也都是「台灣話」(或「台語」)!
^ a b Davis, Edward L. (2005). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture. London: Routledge. p. 333. ISBN 9780415241298.
^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Fujian Tulou". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ Lozada, Eriberto (2005). Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin; Skoggard, Ian (eds.). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Vol. 2. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 92–103. ISBN 9780306483219.
^ "客家夥房的土地龍神". Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
^ "Townsmen Sentiment Always Serves as a Link". en.people.cn.
^ "Ganzhou.China". Gndaily.com. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ Yingcong Dai (2009). The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing. University of Washington Press. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-0-295-98952-5.
^ New Peace County, A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region Peter Y.L. Ng, Hong Kong University Press, 1983. ISBN 962-209-043-5.
^ Ng (1983), p. 84.
^ See p.12, 圖片 香港今昔 by 高添強 (Gao TianQiang), 三聯書店. (1997 2nd Ed.) ISBN 962-04-1180-3
^ Gao 1997, p.16.
^ a b Hase, Patrick (1995). "Alliance of Ten". In Faure, David; Siu, Helen (eds.). Down to Earth : The Territorial Bond in South China. Stanford, California: Stanford Univ. Press. pp. 123–160. ISBN 978-0-8047-2434-0. OCLC 31815055.
^ Gao, (1997)
^ "About the Hakka people in Taiwan". HakkaTV. Public Television Service. 5 October 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
^ Davidson, James W. (1903). The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions. London and New York: Macmillan. p. 561. OCLC 1887893. OL 6931635M.
^ Davidson (1903), p. 590.
^ Davidson (1903), p. 591.
^ Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (19 August 2009). Maritime Taiwan: Historical Encounters with the East and the West. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9780765623287 – via Google Books.
^ Rouil, 60–61
^ "Reviving the Hakka Way of Life". April 2013.
^ Willmott (1967), p. 23-4
^ [2] Archived 2 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ Joshua Project. "People Groups". joshuaproject.net.
^ a b c Jessieca Leo (3 September 2015). Global Hakka: Hakka Identity in the Remaking. Brill. p. 87. ISBN 9789004300279.
^ Chong, Tet Loi (2002). The Hakkas of Sabah : a survey of their impact on the modernization of the Bornean Malaysian State. Sabah Theological Seminary. pp. 32–33.
^ Jessieca Leo (3 September 2015). Global Hakka: Hakka Identity in the Remaking. Brill. pp. 75–76. ISBN 9789004300279.
^ Chong, Tet Loi (2002). The Hakkas of Sabah: A Survey on Their Impact on the Modernization of the Bornean Malaysian State. Kota Kinabalu: Sabah Theological Seminary. p. 28. ISBN 978-983-40840-0-4. OCLC 51876445.
^ "Kebersamaan Tanpa Prasangka". KOMPAS. 23 August 2006. Retrieved 10 September 2007.
^ "United Singkawang – Bahasa Hakka di Singkawang". Singkawang.us. Archived from the original on 8 May 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ a b Thunø, Mette (2007). Beyond Chinatown: new Chinese migration and the global expansion of China. NIAS Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-87-7694-000-3. OL 13426825M. Retrieved 24 November 2009.
^ "Home". Hakka Association of NY. Archived from the original on 1 August 2015.
^ "We are Chinese Jamaicans Worldwide". We are Chinese Jamaicans Worldwide. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013.
^ "Galvanising the collective intelligence of the Hakka Diaspora in Western Australia". 3 July 2018.
^ "Living in NZ: A Chinese Descent Indian shares her unique cultural experience".
^ McIntyre, Nancy (2008). "Ethnic Minority migrant Chinese in New Zealand" (PDF).
^ "The Chinese Community in Tahiti: 150 years of history". 3 March 2015.
^ Hattaway, Paul (2004). Peoples of the Buddhist World: A Christian Prayer Diary. Carlisle: Piquant. ISBN 9780878083619.
^ "客委會人口調查 全台約18%是客家人". tw.news.yahoo.com. 12 September 2014.
^ "香港客家人". bj.crntt.com.
^ "Census of Population 2010" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
^ Yeen, Oh Ing (16 June 2015). "Home for Hakka group opens". The Star Online.
^ "The Malaysian Chinese population is decreasing".
^ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
^ Lee, Pui-tak (1 September 2005). Colonial Hong Kong and Modern China: Interaction and Reintegration. ISBN 9789622097209.
^ Spence, Jonathan D. (1997). God's Chinese son : the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 9780393315561.
^ The Hakka Odyssey & their Taiwan homeland. p. 157, Clyde Kiang. 1992
^ "Dr. Sun Yat-sen – Chinese Cultural Plaza – Honolulu, HI – Statues of Historic Figures on Waymarking.com". Waymarking.com. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ 门杰丹 (4 December 2003). 浓浓乡情系中原 – 访孙中山先生孙女孙穗芳博士 [Interview with Dr. Sun Yat-granddaughter of Dr. Sun Suifang]. chinanews.com (in Chinese). Retrieved 30 July 2012.Translate this Chinese article to English
^ "Yao Yuping and the Xinhai Revolution" (in Chinese). Homemy.jumzsf.come. 8 April 2013. Archived from the original on 8 November 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
^ "5". Renwuzhuanjiwang.com. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ a b c "The Secret History of the Hakkas: The Chinese Revolution as a Hakka Enterprise" (PDF).
^ Discuz! Team and Comsenz UI Team. "֮_̳__˵". Suizhou.org. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
^ Sui-Jeung, Chan (2009). East River Column. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 9789622098503. JSTOR j.ctt1xwfs6.
^ "Hakka Chinese Political Leadership in East and Southeast Asia, and South America". 20 September 2014.
^ "Orange past winners". Retrieved 11 May 2008.
Rouil, C., Formose: des batailles presque oubliées (Taipei, 2001)
External links[edit]
Media related to Hakka people at Wikimedia Commons
vteHan Chinese subgroups
Cantonese
Cantonese
Taishanese
Hongkongers
Macau people
Gan
Hakka
Ngái people
Hunanese
Jianghuai
Subei people
Min
Fuzhounese
Hainanese
Hoklo
Putianese
Teochew
Shandong
Sichuanese
Wu
Shanghainese
Wenzhou
Chuanqing
Gaoshan Han
Hoa
Minh Hương
Nùng
Hui
Dungan
Panthays
Hui'an maidens
Peranakan
Benteng
Sangley
Taiwanese
Hakka Taiwanese [zh]
Hoklo
Hoklokeh [zh]
Teochew Taiwanese [zh]
Waishengren
Tanka
Fuzhou Tanka
Tunbao
Waxiang
Yunnanese
Chin Haw
Kokang
vteHongkongersBy migration history
Indigenous inhabitants
New immigrants
Returnees
Refugees and asylum seekers
By Chinese dialect group
Yue people (Ethnic Cantonese and Sze Yap/Taishanese (list))
Puntis (Aboriginal)
Hakka
Fujianese/Hoklo/Hokkien
Hoklo
Shanghainese (and Ningbo) (list)
Tanka
Teochew
By nationality or ethnicityFrom Asia
East Asians
Japanese
Koreans
South Asians
Indians
Nepalis
Pakistanis
Southeast Asians
Filipinos
Indonesians
Thais
Vietnamese
Others
Africans
Americans
Australians
Britons
Canadians
French
Jews
Russians
Authority control databases: National
France
BnF data
Israel
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hakka_people&oldid=1211545135"
Categories: Hakka peopleHakka cultureSubgroups of the Han ChineseHidden categories: CS1 maint: locationWebarchive template wayback linksCS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)Articles with short descriptionShort description matches WikidataUse dmy dates from June 2021Articles containing Chinese-language textArticles containing Hakka-language text"Related ethnic groups" needing confirmationArticles using infobox ethnic group with image parametersArticles containing Vietnamese-language textAll Wikipedia articles needing clarificationWikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2015All articles with unsourced statementsArticles with unsourced statements from February 2024Articles needing additional references from April 2022All articles needing additional referencesArticles with unsourced statements from May 2022Articles containing traditional Chinese-language textAll articles with vague or ambiguous timeVague or ambiguous time from May 2011All articles with failed verificationArticles with failed verification from March 2021Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2017Articles with unsourced statements from May 2014Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018Commons category link from WikidataArticles with BNF identifiersArticles with BNFdata identifiersArticles with J9U identifiersArticles with LCCN identifiersArticles with NDL identifiersArticles with NKC identifiers
This page was last edited on 3 March 2024, at 03:10 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Code of Conduct
Developers
Statistics
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Toggle limited content width
客家网 Hakka.com / 融汇世界的客家,展示客家的世界! - Hakka.com
[世界客属恳亲大会 | 世界客商大会 | 世界客属青年大会] 首席合作媒体!
您好,欢迎光临!
登录
立即注册
请 登录 后使用快捷导航没有帐号?立即注册
客家网导航 | 繁體版
搜索
搜索
文章帖子用户
手机客家网微信扫一扫,访问手机版下载客户端
扫一扫,下载APP
新闻
国内港台
国际要闻
社会 图说
客家
源流语言
风俗民居
宗亲饮食
文艺书画
文学音乐
人物
客商客青
访谈客团
客企智库
生活
关注我们
旅游摄影
美食关注我们
健康房产
教育婚嫁
人才微信扫一扫,轻松找工作!
论坛
客Tv创投
公益商城
微信扫一扫,客商优品全球购
客家人地域分布调查 八届客家文化论坛征稿 探访赣南客家古村落 [专题]广东援藏20周年 群众路线教育实践活动
客家网先心病公益救助 客家家风家训征集评选 民营经济发展大家谈 [专题]广东援藏20周年 群众路线教育实践活动
客家网先心病公益救助 客家家风家训征集评选 民营经济发展大家谈 [专题]广东援藏20周年 群众路线教育实践活动
推荐商机财经
寻梦里客家 游桥溪古韵 世界客属29届恳亲大会 梦里客家 网络媒体梅州行 客家名优农产品展销平台
寻梦里客家 游桥溪古韵 世界客属29届恳亲大会 梦里客家 网络媒体梅州行 客家名优农产品展销平台
龙岩民营经济采风活动 “骑行中国”公益活动 客家网骑行团国际献礼 互联网法律知识闭关赛 “世界客商”标志征集
客家网先心病公益救助 客家家风家训征集评选 民营经济发展大家谈 [专题]广东援藏20周年 群众路线教育实践活动
龙岩民营经济采风活动 “骑行中国”公益活动 客家网骑行团国际献礼 互联网法律知识闭关赛 “世界客商”标志征集
活动商机财经
谭元亨:客家研究后继乏人堪虞目前全国搞客家文化研究的人年龄都偏大,年轻人少,后继乏人堪虞客语流行音乐:风雨春秋搏激流客语流行音乐发轫于上世纪80年代初的台湾,风雨春秋数十载,它如今是个怎样的状况?30年还我母语,还清了吗?当年发起「还我母语」的人啊,一万个日子过去,家里还讲客家话吗?客家话,联系客家人的唯一纽带倘没有了“客家话”,就算是“客家文化”亦将立马而不复存。
大家都在看
客家“豆腐丸”,吃过的人都念念不忘拟于洛阳举办!用镜头传递客家力量!"大客家摄影联盟"成立在广东韶关,有一座客家围楼“博物馆”客家2024:心有所向,不惧路长手机版请访问:www.hakka.com
客家
新闻 百科
智库 旅游
亲子 人才
教育 公益
文创 金融
拟于洛阳举办!
用镜头传递客家力量!"大客家摄影联盟"成立客家2024:心有所向,不惧路长国家主席习近平发表二〇二四年新年贺词“山茶花”绽放羊城!客家山歌剧《血蝴蝶》温春香:共建“一带一路”背景下,如何做好
人物
先贤 骄子
军政 客商
客侨 客青
学者 艺人
百姓 新秀
海聚英才!这场盛会吹响世界客家青年高质量
江平成:台湾客语广播的开拓者、客家文化的南粤十大好网民!河源客家妹子秀出乡村美新派客家菜厨师陈智健:“绣花功夫”做精致万里归途:七旬非裔美籍华人奶奶和她的300这位客家人,又给家乡捐了2个亿!
客家大本营 · 县域
更多 >>
梅州 河源 惠州 韶关 赣州龙岩 三明 玉林 台湾 港澳
纯客县: 梅县 大埔 平远 蕉岭 兴宁 五华 丰顺宁化 长汀 永定 上杭 连城 武平 博白 陆河 吉安上犹 大余 崇义 安远 于都 兴国 石城 寻乌 瑞金
恳亲联谊谋发展!第32届世客会在龙南盛大举办
拟于洛阳举办!用镜头传递客家力量!"大客家摄
台湾客家:30年「还我母语」?到底「还」清了没?
民以食为天!《南粤瑰宝-五味入《南粤瑰宝--匠心独运》| 河源的
侨讯
关注!世界客属总商会会长一行莅临石壁客家祖关注!林开钦同志客家研究成果研讨会在福州举
客家2024:心有所向,不惧路长 01-01国家主席习近平发表二〇二四年新年贺词 12-31香港举行第七届区议会,11位梅州籍乡贤获委任和当选 12-20冠军花落谁家?首届全球客家文化使者大赛总决赛收官 12-20关注!世界客属总商会会长一行莅临石壁客家祖地谒祖祈 12-18叙乡谊话发展,新加坡应和会馆一行回梅州省亲 12-02恳亲联谊、共谋发展!全球客属代表欢聚第32届世客盛会 11-11全球瞩目!世界客属第32届恳亲大会在龙南盛大开幕 11-08聚祖地 叙乡情|第29届世界客属石壁祖地祭祖大典今天 11-05这场客家盛会,邹家华发来贺信,黄华华、刘日知等老领 11-04关注!林开钦同志客家研究成果研讨会在福州举行 08-28祝贺!四川客家海外联谊会成功召开第四届会员代表大会 04-19
客家TV历史/人文 | 文化/旅游 | 音乐/山歌 | 少儿/动漫 | 娱乐/搞笑
寻艺之木雕匠的敲打人生
客语歌VS韩语歌,客语传承堪忧圆桌五士打嘴鼓(五腔客语)舌尖上的客家:超级美食盐焗鸡《梦回松口》MV唯美演绎思乡情客家动画:《宋湘小故事》
时评
更多 >>
关注!世界客属总商会会长一行莅临12月14日,世界客属总商会荣誉总会长、北京客家海外联谊会会长王建都携夫人关注!林开钦同志客家研究成果研讨8月26日,在福建省客家研究联谊会原会长林开钦同志去世一周年之际,“林开祝贺!四川客家海外联谊会成功召开热烈祝贺!仪陇县客家联谊会召开第四届理事会2月11日,仪陇县客家联谊会第四届理事会第四次会议暨仪陇客家研究中心成立
精彩活动
更多 >>
客家2024:心有所向,不惧路长2024,就在前方。我们的心,如同浩渺的星空,汇聚着无数客家人的梦,把前路国家主席习近平发表二〇二四年新年让我们一起,祝愿祖国繁荣昌盛、世界和平安宁!祝愿大家福暖四季、顺遂安康冠军花落谁家?首届全球客家文化使经过两个多小时的美丽鏖战,20名选手通过四个环节的激烈角逐,最终来自广东
专题
更多 >>
黄旭华的割舍:是母亲的信箱,是妻
图文并茂
精彩推荐香港举行第七届区议会,11位梅州叙乡谊话发展,新加坡应和会馆一就任新加坡总理后第三次访粤,李关注!香港梅州联会、香港梅州(
香港举行第七届区议会,11位梅州籍乡贤获委叙乡谊话发展,新加坡应和会馆一行回梅州省就任新加坡总理后第三次访粤,李显龙与广东关注!香港梅州联会、香港梅州(嘉应)总商关注!梅州这个SAHARA NANA亮相印尼华裔美这家成立111年的美国最大客家社团,最近举万里亲情一线牵!梅州籍著名画家、建筑学家汶莱崇正客联总会疫后首聚——回顾耕耘十二跨海交流客家情!马来亚客属社团疫后首次互梅州客家菜走入欧洲!《“粤菜师傅·四海同
叶选宁:叶剑英引以为豪的儿子
叶选宁,广东梅县雁洋人,1938年9月生于香港,是叶剑英元帅6个子女中的老三
名人堂
更多 >>
海聚英才!这场盛会吹响世界客家青年高质量江平成:台湾客语广播的开拓者、客家文化的南粤十大好网民!河源客家妹子秀出乡村美万里归途:七旬非裔美籍华人奶奶和她的300
观点
更多 >>
海聚英才!这场盛会吹响世界客家青年高质量发展最强
江平成:台湾客语广播的开拓者、客家文化的复育功臣 10-09南粤十大好网民!河源客家妹子秀出乡村美 10-05新派客家菜厨师陈智健:“绣花功夫”做精致家乡菜 09-04万里归途:七旬非裔美籍华人奶奶和她的300位广东客 06-01这位客家人,又给家乡捐了2个亿! 05-08
要闻
更多 >>
执子之手 与子偕老:三对老年夫妻讲述自己的爱情故
黄少良:翱翔蓝天,卓越高远 07-22客家讲古:两个儿子不如一箱石子 07-20客家母亲系列:默默付出数十载 任劳任怨养育客家儿 07-07深圳富源集团董事长缪寿良:牢记客商精神奋力前行 06-19亚洲史上第一个共和国:客家人创立的“兰芳共和国” 01-04
社团
更多 >>
关注!世界客属总商会会长一行莅临石壁客家祖地谒祖
关注!林开钦同志客家研究成果研讨会在福州举行 08-28祝贺!四川客家海外联谊会成功召开第四届会员代表大 04-19仪陇县客家联谊会召开第四届理事会第四次会议暨仪陇 02-13福建龙岩永定区客家联谊会换届,吴伯雄题词祝贺 12-16连城县客联会换届,林百坤连任会长 12-07
访谈
更多 >>
此心安处是“客家”海聚英才!这场盛会吹响世界客家青年高质量江平成:台湾客语广播的开拓者、客家文化的南粤十大好网民!河源客家妹子秀出乡村美万里归途:七旬非裔美籍华人奶奶和她的300这位客家人,又给家乡捐了2个亿!
客家媒体联盟:梅州 | 河源 | 惠州 | 韶关 | 赣州 | 龙岩 | 三明 | 玉林 | 台湾 | 四川 | 北京
新闻客家人物智库
新闻 源流
关于我们 | 投资者关系 Investor Relations | 版权说明|关于我们|手机版|Archiver
Copyright © 2011-2020 Hakka Inc, All Rights Reserved.客侨传媒 版权所有, 客服电话:+86 0753-2226868,客服QQ:11102655粤ICP备15047820号-1
积分 0, 距离下一级还需 积分
客家民系 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书
跳转到内容
主菜单
主菜单
移至侧栏
隐藏
导航
首页分类索引特色内容新闻动态最近更改随机条目资助维基百科
帮助
帮助维基社群方针与指引互助客栈知识问答字词转换IRC即时聊天联络我们关于维基百科
搜索
搜索
创建账号
登录
个人工具
创建账号 登录
未登录编辑者的页面 了解详情
贡献讨论
目录
移至侧栏
隐藏
序言
1族群源流
开关族群源流子章节
1.1中原漢族遷徙說
1.2南方百越主體說
1.3中原漢族主體說
1.4南北起源融合說
2形成過程
3主要遷出地
4人口與分佈
开关人口與分佈子章节
4.1中國大陸
4.2香港
4.3澳門
4.4臺灣
4.5東南亞、南亞和歐美
4.5.1馬來西亞
4.5.2印尼
4.6太平洋和印度洋
5母語
开关母語子章节
5.1臺灣
5.2香港
6政治
7商業
8文化
开关文化子章节
8.1圍屋古鎮
8.2宋城文化
8.3教育
8.4敬字文化
8.5祠堂文化
8.6義民信仰
8.7民俗傳統
8.8音樂
8.8.1傳統音樂
8.8.2流行音樂
8.9戲劇
8.10飲食
8.11分佈城市
9團體
开关團體子章节
9.1崇真教會
9.2崇正總會
10注釋
11參考資料
开关參考資料子章节
11.1引用資料
11.2研究書目
12另見
13外部链接
开关外部链接子章节
13.1學術網站
开关目录
客家民系
41种语言
AfrikaansPangcahالعربيةAsturianuCatalà閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄DeutschEnglishEspañolEuskaraفارسیSuomiFrançais客家語/Hak-kâ-ngîעבריתHrvatskiMagyarBahasa IndonesiaItaliano日本語Jawa한국어LietuviųമലയാളംBahasa Melayuမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsNorsk bokmålPolskiPortuguêsРусскийSimple EnglishSvenskaไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаTiếng Việt吴语VahcuenghBân-lâm-gú粵語
编辑链接
条目讨论
不转换
不转换简体繁體大陆简体香港繁體澳門繁體大马简体新加坡简体臺灣正體
阅读编辑查看历史
工具
工具
移至侧栏
隐藏
操作
阅读编辑查看历史
常规
链入页面相关更改上传文件特殊页面固定链接页面信息引用本页获取短URL下载二维码维基数据项目
打印/导出
下载为PDF打印页面
在其他项目中
维基共享资源
维基百科,自由的百科全书
此條目的引用需要改寫,使其符合格式。 (2020年4月11日)参考資料应符合正确的引用、脚注及外部链接格式。
客家民系Hakka洪秀全葉亞來張弼士鄭士良廖仲愷胡文虎鄧仲元朱德郭沫若羅卓英張發奎葉挺薛岳葉劍英黃琪翔謝晉元胡耀邦李光耀丘達新李顯龍丘英樂李登輝蔡英文吳伯雄江啟臣總人口全球約8,000萬[1]分佈地區中華人民共和國(包含廣東、廣西、福建、江西、湖南、四川、香港、澳門)、中華民國(臺灣)、日本、韓國、東南亞、澳洲、紐西蘭、美國、加拿大、蘇里南、歐洲及模里西斯等等。語言客家話(亦稱客家語)、現代標準漢語及出生地通用語言宗教信仰多數為佛教(上座部佛教或漢傳佛教)、儒教、道教、中國民間信仰;少數為基督宗教和其它宗教。
客家民系汉语客家标音官话(現代標準漢語)- 汉语拼音 Kè jiā - 威妥瑪拼音 K'ê4 chia - 耶魯拼音 Kè jyā - 注音符號ㄎㄜˋ ㄐㄧㄚ其他官话- 南京官话拼音 kä5 ja1 闽语- 白話字 Kheh-ka - 臺語羅馬字拼音 Kheh-ka - 閩東語平話字 Káh-gă 吴语- 拉丁化 Khaq ka 粤语- 粵拼 Haak3 gaa1 - 耶魯拼音 Haak gā 贛語- 贛語 Kak6 Ga1 客語- 客家话拼音 Hag5 ga1 - 客語白話字 Hak-kâ 汉语别称㈠汉语客家人标音官话(現代標準漢語)- 汉语拼音 kè jiā rén - 威妥瑪拼音 K'ê4 chia jên2 - 耶魯拼音 Kè jyā rén - 注音符號ㄎㄜˋ ㄐㄧㄚ ㄖㄣˊ其他官话- 南京官话拼音 Kä5 ja1 ren2 闽语- 白話字 Kheh-ka lâng - 臺語羅馬字拼音 Kheh-ka lâng - 閩東語平話字 Káh-gă nè̤ng 吴语- 拉丁化 Khaq ka nyin 粤语- 粵拼 Haak3 gaa1 jan4 - 耶魯拼音 Haak gā yàhn 贛語- 贛語 Kak6 ga1 nyin4 客語- 客家话拼音 hag5 ga1 ngin2 - 客語白話字 Hak-kâ ngìn 汉语别称㈡汉语客标音其他官话- 南京官话拼音 kä5 闽语- 白話字 Kheh
客家
客家支系(客家地區)
贛南系(贛州)
閩西系(汀)
粵東系(梅、惠、潮)
香港新界原居民
臺灣系(臺灣)
客家語言
客家话
梅县话
話
土广东话
懷遠話
臺灣客家話
香港客家話
平婆話
客家文化
客家文學
客家菜
廣東漢樂
客語流行音樂
客家山歌
客家八音
客家表演藝術
漢劇
舞火龍(炸龍)
舞麒麟
木偶戲
花朝戲
東河戲
客家大戲
客家山歌劇
客家建築
客家土樓
圍屋
敬字亭
祠堂
客家武術
客家龍形拳
客家流民拳
白眉派
周家螳螂拳
朱家教
布雞拳
金鷹拳
客家信仰
三界爺
土地伯公
龍神
觀音菩薩
民主公王(閩西客家)
定光古佛(閩西客家)
慚愧祖師(粵東客家)
開漳聖王(漳州客家)
五顯大帝(漳州詔安客家)
三山國王(粵東潮州客家)
義民爺(臺灣客家)
客家傳媒
客家電視台
梅州電視台
惠州广播电视台
寶島客家廣播電台
苗栗客家文化廣播電台
新客家電台
中廣客家頻道
大漢之音調頻廣播電台
高屏溪廣播電台
CRI客家之聲
講客廣播電臺
查论编
客家民系(白話字:Hak-kâ mìn-he),俗稱「客家」、舊稱嘉應人、棚民或是山輋,在西方人類學上簡稱「Hakka」(客家话:客家,白話字:Hak-kâ)[a],是漢族的一個分支,也是漢族影響深遠的民系之一,為漢族各大民系中唯一不以地域命名的民系。[2][3]
該民系約5,000萬人分布在廣東、江西、福建、廣西、四川、海南等19個省區的180多個市縣,此外約600萬人分布在台灣、香港、澳門,約1500萬人分布在印尼、馬來西亞、泰國、新加坡、越南、美國、秘魯、毛里求斯等80餘個國家。[4]
客家這一稱謂,源於魏晉南北朝時期的「給客制度」及唐宋時期的「客戶」制度。[5][6]
客戶制度原本並非現今大眾認知的客家人專屬,如於明清時期移入西南地區使用西南官話的漢族移民在當地亦被稱為客家。[7][8]
族群源流[编辑]
客家之稱源於清朝初年,當時廣東四邑地區以地主自居的四邑族群冠予客家,是一個他稱。之初仍無客家之稱,而只有土籍、客籍的區別。客家這個他稱名詞後來由於羅香林的客家學說而廣為人所知,逐漸成為族群名稱,不少人開始欣然受之,自稱客家人。[9]
而清代康熙年《永安縣次志》是最早出現真正意義上客家的文獻,該志由清初嶺南著名學者廣東番禺人屈大均纂,其卷十四《風俗》「琴江好虛禮,頗事文學。散佚逋賦。縣中雅多秀氓,其高曾祖父多自江、閩、潮、惠諸縣遷徙而至,名曰客家,比屋誦讀,勤會文。」而在屈大均《入永安縣記》一文中,另有如下記載「縣中多閩、豫章、潮、惠諸客家,其初高曾至此,或農或商,樂其土風,遂居之。風氣所移,大抵尚勤儉,務敦樸,有淳古之風。」[10]
關於客家源流的主要看法有:[11]
中原漢族遷徙說[编辑]
羅香林《客家研究導論》提出「客家人是漢族裡頭一個系統分明的富有忠義思想和民族意識的民系,客家先民是因受到中國邊疆少數民族侵擾影響,逐漸從中原輾轉遷移到中國的南方。」[12]
南方百越主體說[编辑]
房學嘉《客家源流探奧》認為客家人是南遷的中原人與閩、粵、贛三角的古越人遺民混化,其主體是本地古越人,惟1994年時房學嘉未有遺傳學的佐證。
中原漢族主體說[编辑]
復旦大學李辉等人在2003年發表針對福建長汀客家人遺傳分析,顯示當地人群父系染色體祖源北方漢族約80.2%、南方畬族約13%、南方侗族約6.8%。[13]而天津師範大學生命科學院郑连斌等人對廣東和江西共1354例客家人男女的體質報告,顯示接近中國北亞類型族群,客家人的主要成分是中原漢人。[14]
南北起源融合說[编辑]
根據數據顯示,廣東客家的父系染色體,傾向南中國起源的O1約27%,傾向北中國起源的O2、C、N、Q約73%。[15]而受父系母系雙方影響的常染色體方面接近周邊南方省份的漢族。[16]
形成過程[编辑]
惠州豐湖書院梅州魁星像汀州試院韶州孔子像
《晉書·地理志》「永嘉之際,豫州淪於石氏。元帝渡江,於春谷縣僑立襄陽郡及繁昌縣。成帝又僑立豫州於江淮之間,居蕪湖,時淮南入北,乃分丹陽,僑立淮南郡,居於湖口。又以當陽縣流人渡江,僑立為縣,並淮南、廬江、安豐,並屬豫州。」東晉時期的衣冠南渡,士族僑居的僑郡設立在淮河流域的安徽省、江蘇省。[17]
贛州八鏡臺
《南齊書.州郡志》「南兗州,鎮廣陵。時百姓遭難,流移此境,流民多庇大姓以為客。元帝大興四年,詔以流民失籍,使條民上有司,為給客制度。」永嘉以後,晉元帝在位時設置了部分僑郡僑縣安置流民。第一次大幅設置僑州郡縣,要到王敦之亂平定以後。設置地點在今江蘇省中部的江淮間,集中於江北廣陵附近。約於此時,原為流民帥的郗鑒,因平定王敦之亂,逐步在廣陵、京口一帶站穩腳根,並常領徐、兗二州刺史。東晉第一波設置僑郡僑縣,就在廣陵、京口一帶,以及江州潯陽。第二波僑置政區的設置,是在蘇峻之亂平定以後,在今安徽省一帶僑置原本的豫州諸郡。第三波是東晉中期以後,晉孝武帝成立僑置雍州。這三波僑置政區的流民來源不同,目的地也不同。而這三個區域,日後成為東晉三個重要的軍事重鎮。僑置政區的設立,部分原因固然是為了讓南下的流民有回歸故土的希望,另一重要理由是收編流民,使其成為國家的武力來源。對東晉政權而言,由於中央武力薄弱,無力徵發當時大量依附於當地豪強之下的人力,因此南下的流民便成為國家首要的徵發對象。太興四年詔以流民失籍,因此欲整理並著籍,使之為給客制度,作為擴充兵力的來源。而「江北荒殘,不可檢實」,其後便僑置頓邱、濟岷二郡,使那些無法檢實的戶口歸入僑郡,並以此為據以行徵發。僑政區的成立,並不盡然只是為了安置流民之用,而是在無法檢劾流民之籍的情況下,使其落籍,同時讓國家掌握更多的人力資源。[18]
惠州西湖
客家民系是在客家先民的遷徙運動中形成,客家人在歷史上曾經歷五次遷徙,其中第一期是孕育期,第二、三期是形成期,第四、五期是向海內外播散期,客家人遷徙的原因,有皇權變更、農民起義或少數民族入主中原等。東晉時期衣冠土族由中原經河南南陽,進入襄樊,沿漢水入長江遷向湖北、安徽、江蘇的江淮地區,朝東則由九江到鄱陽湖,或順贛江進入贛南,其前鋒已抵達今之梅州大埔,並於東晉義熙九年以「流民營」為基礎在大埔設置了義招縣。數百年之後的唐朝自安史之亂國勢由盛而衰,出現藩鎮割據的局面,爆發了由黃巢領導的起義,起義軍弛騁中原,輾轉大江南北十數省,《資治通鑒.卷二百五十九》「及經秦、畢、孫、楊兵火之餘,江、淮之間,東西千里掃地盡矣....兵火之餘,十室九空....淮南被兵六年,士民轉徙幾盡。」其後的五代十國戰亂所及的江淮地區正是東晉設立的僑郡地域,《九國志·安仁義傳》「儒軍大敗,破五十餘寨,以功奏授檢校尚書左僕射、潤州剌史....初儒之亂,士庶多奔豫章。」客家先民的大部分於此時期由江淮地區湧入距離江淮最近相對安寧的江西贛南及周邊的閩西、廣東東北,《九國志·譚全播傳》「遣使詣梁,俄授萬勝軍防禦使、五嶺虔韶二州節度、開通使、檢校太尉、開國侯,在任七年人物殷盛。」奠定了客家人的形成基礎。而在後來的靖康之難宋高宗建炎南渡,於臨安稱帝建立南宋,女真人、蒙古人入侵中原,處於黃河流域的百姓為躲避戰亂又一次渡江南遷,隨後由於元兵南下,贛閩粵交界處成為宋元雙方攻守的戰場,早先遷入此地的客家先民為尋求安寧的環境,進入粵東的梅州、惠州一帶,《瀲水志林》「嶺嶠四衝,土著少而客籍多。民俗買田則立戶,立戶則充役。僑寓流移,襁負擔簦,春來秋去,著之以名籍,惴惴乎?」因這時戶籍有主、客之分,移民入籍者皆編入客籍,而客籍人遂稱為客家人。《入永安縣記》「縣中多閩、豫章、潮、惠諸客家,其初高曾至此,或農或商,樂其土風,遂居之。風氣所移,大抵尚勤儉,務敦樸,有淳古之風。」至於向海外遷徙的開始源於清兵進至福建和廣東時,節義之士,起而號召舉旗反清,失敗後被迫散居各地,有的隨鄭成功到台灣,適逢清政府於康熙年間發起「湖廣填四川」的移民運動,於是大量客家人遷至四川。清末時期不少客家人亦下南洋至東南亞各國發展,二十世紀中葉又有部分人由原住國向歐美等國乃至世界各地再行遷移。[11]
主要遷出地[编辑]
洛陽讀書音是客家人千年傳承不變的語言,客家方言是客家民系共同使用的語言,又稱唐音、客方言、客話或客家話。古漢語研究學者認為是從魏晉時流傳下來,經過南北朝的發展,最終在唐朝定型。不知有漢、無論魏晉,客家人對於自己的語言有著獨特的情感,寧賣祖宗田,不忘祖宗言,寧賣祖宗坑,不忘祖宗聲,是客家人穿越千年在精神上與故鄉、先祖聯繫的文化密碼。[19]漢魏洛陽故城文物管理所名譽所長徐金星以「根在河洛,夢回銅駝,慎終追遠,繼往開來。」為主題以全球視野,圍繞洛陽客家祖源地、客家文化根在河洛等進行深入交流,進一步挖掘、傳承、弘揚客家文化。[20]
洛陽是當時集中了天下最多士族的地方,故有郡望堂號的客家大姓宗族的父系染色體都是1700年前東晉時期,閩廣地區也就只有客家人有些兩千年內的真南遷基因簇
2007年8月20日在河南省洛陽偃師市結束的客家先民首次南遷出發地國際學術研討會確認,客家先民首次大規模南遷紀念地在洛陽偃師市。一千多年來客家先民從中原向外遷徙,足跡遍及大半個中國和海外各地。參加研討會的代表們認為,客家人的第一次遷徙發生在東晉年間,位於河洛之間的漢魏洛陽故城為當時的國都,正是客家人的根之所在。[21]洛陽位於中國西北、華北之間,地理位置優越,謂山河勢勝帝王宅,寒暑氣和天地中,是生息、建都的理想場所。昔三代之居,皆在河洛之間,一直到五代,先後有十三個王朝建都洛陽。洛陽不僅是華夏文明的中心,更是客家人的根親聖地,中原有舊族,遷徙名客家,洛陽是客家人最初主要的遷出地,西晉末年的永嘉之亂,使京都洛陽及周邊地區的士族紛紛外遷避難,洛京傾覆,中州士女避亂江左者十六七,最集中的遷移地是相對安定的江淮地區。[22]西晉末、唐末及北宋末的三個時期,都掀起了大規模南遷的熱潮。其中西晉末期大規模自中原南遷的漢人,構成了後來客家先民的主體。而洛陽正是當時的都城所在地,是當時文化發展水平最高、士族最集中的標誌性區域。正因如此才會有後來客家民系的產生,形成了客家人突出的文化個性。[23]大谷關即八關之一,東漢中平元年置洛陽八關,大谷關遺址位於西晉洛陽城南約四十餘里,今寇店鎮水泉村南,是漢魏晉時期由京都洛陽通往汝州、南陽、許昌的要道,也是永嘉之亂後,京師洛陽一帶漢人南遷的主要通道。煌煌祖宗業,永懷河洛間,洛陽是客家文化的源頭和華夏文明的發祥地,同時也是客家先民首次大規模南遷出發地。如今的漢魏洛陽故城遺址,作為西晉客家先民南遷出發地,已被命名為古絲綢之路世界文化遺產點,也是第一批國家重點文物保護單位。[24]洛陽客家之源紀念館位于洛陽伊濱區,紀念館坐東面西,依山傍水,爲漢代建築風格,由客家之源紀念館、姓氏文化園、圍屋風情園三部分組成。其中客家之源紀念館以西晉時期發生的衣冠南渡事件爲背景,采用現代聲、光、影技術與文物複制品相結合的方式,還原客家人南遷的歷史畫面。姓氏文化園将設立姓氏宗祠,供客家人立碑、植樹緬懷先人。圍屋風情園将承擔客家文化交流中心、旅遊接待中心等職能。[25]
人口與分佈[编辑]
主条目:客家地区、世界客家博覽會和世界客屬懇親大會
贛州宋城梅州學宮汀州五通門惠州合江樓
1994年,中國廣東梅州市举行「世界客属第十二次恳亲大会」,通过多渠道,包括国内外函调、采访、采摘报刊材料等方面汇总统计,客家人在国内外分布人数共6,562.429万人,其中在中國大陸6,107.8万人,海外454.629万人。[1]
因江西是人口遷徙的主要路線,是渡過長江後的首站,歷史上多次南遷都跟江西有關。客家先民到達江西,到達贛州之後,再進入粵北、閩西等與江西交界地區。[26]
根據清朝末年徐旭曾在其所撰著的《豐湖雜記》提到:「今之福建汀州各屬,江西之南安、贛州、寧都各屬,廣東之南雄、韶州、連州、惠州、嘉應各屬,及潮州之大埔、豐順,廣州之龍門各屬是也」。江西贛州因是客家人南遷最早的集中地,而被稱為「客家搖籃」,而福建長汀縣在漫長的客家人遷徙的歷史上汀州作為第一個府治行政機關而存在,被稱為「客家首府」。所以汀州寧化縣石壁村是客家民系形成的中心地域,「石壁」被稱爲「客家祖地」。廣東梅州則因其是客家人最主要聚居區之一而被宣傳爲「世界客都」,廣東河源則被稱爲千年「客家古邑」。由於海外客家華僑祖籍地最多的是原惠州府,所以惠州又被稱為「客家僑都」。惠州、梅州、贛州、汀州又稱為客家四州。[27]
广东省县际客家人口分布地图江西省县际客家人口分布地图福建省县际客家人口分布地图广西壮族自治区县际客家人口分布地图
中國大陸[编辑]
在中国大陆,客家人主要分布在广东省、福建省、江西省、广西壮族自治区、四川省、湖南省、海南省的二百多个县市。其中江西南部、福建西部和广东东部、中部是客家人最集中的大本营。[28][29][30]除此之外,也有较少部分客家人分布在陕西省[31]、浙江省[32]等地。
香港[编辑]
香港客家舞麒麟分佈圖
香港歷史上原屬廣東省的寶安縣,是客家人的傳統聚居地之一。17世紀末,客家人就開始向香港遷移,香港仍未開埠前客家人是香港原居民最早之一,該地區因而被人叫做「客家村」。在英國殖民香港以前,香港336個村落中(例如赤柱村),客家人的村落多達128個。[33]2010年時,香港的客家人約有200萬人,[34]當中包括「原居」[b]和「非原居」的客家人。在新界大埔、北區、沙田、西貢、荃灣、屯門、九龍及香港島的村落皆可見客家人的足跡。客家人在港數量並不少,但由於遭標準粵語(即廣府話或稱廣州話)取代的影響,現時客家語在香港已不佔優,不少客家新一代都不會講客家話,或者只懂聽不懂講。(詳見香港語言條目)[35]
澳門[编辑]
澳門的客家人約有10萬人,可分為三個部分來源:一是澳門原居民,居住在路環九澳村和黑沙村,主要是在清朝咸豐年間自廣東鶴山、開平、恩平、高要一帶遷徙到澳門;二是1960至70年代,從東南亞(柬埔寨、緬甸、越南、印尼等地)歸國的華人;三是改革開放以後,由內地遷往澳門的居民。[36]
臺灣[编辑]
主条目:臺灣客家人
臺灣各鄉鎮客家人口分布地图
臺灣客家人口比例較高地區為桃竹苗(俗稱北客)、臺中東勢、雲林崙背、高屏(俗稱南客或六堆)、花東縱谷。[37][38]
東南亞、南亞和歐美[编辑]
主条目:艾族
主要分布于东南亚一些国家如越南、泰国、马来西亚、印尼、新加坡等,還有部分分布在印度、孟加拉國,毛里求斯。孟加拉國客家裔华人分布最多的民族地区是在达卡(參見华裔孟加拉人),此外在美洲也有少量分布,如加拿大第三大城溫哥華有大量來自香港的華人移民,該處華裔民系中,客家人比例亦隨之增長。[39][40]
馬來西亞[编辑]
人數達150多萬,主要分佈於:[41][42][43]
西馬的檳城浮羅山背、雪蘭莪、森美蘭芙蓉市、柔佛居鑾與新山部分地區
砂拉越古晉郊區與美里[44][45]
沙巴華人通用客家話,客家人主要在亞庇,斗湖,拿督及山打根[44]
印尼[编辑]
主要分佈於:[46]
印尼加里曼丹,蘭芳共和國故地在其境内
加里曼丹
坤甸
山口洋25萬人口,六成為華人,其中九成為客籍[47]
蘇門答臘亞齊
邦加-勿里洞省140多萬人口,邦加島120萬人口,其中50%為客家人。[48][49]
以客家話為商業媒介語的海外華人城市,全球不超過30座。[46]
太平洋和印度洋[编辑]
如留尼旺島有部分華裔客家人。[50]
母語[编辑]
主条目:客家語
惠州掛榜閣贛州鬱孤臺河源明倫堂深圳甘坑客家小鎮
客家人使用的母語「客話」(Hak-fa)俗稱客語、客家話或土广东話,在广东西部和广西地区也叫作「涯話」、「嘛介話」(Mak-gai-fa)或「艾話」。[30]
臺灣[编辑]
桃園市客家文化館
主条目:還我客家話運動
中華民國過去推動的國語運動打壓包含客家話的台灣本土語言,年輕一輩的臺灣客家裔民眾能聽說客家話的人數大幅降低。[51]
在臺灣省和旁邊的六個直轄市,教育部將之命名為「臺灣客家語」。[52]客家話在客家族群認同上扮演着很重要的作用,客家人素有「寧賣祖宗田,莫忘祖宗言」的祖訓。[53]
1970年代,臺灣省府訂定「台灣省加強推行國語實施計劃」,規定交通機構包括火車及公民營汽車一律使用國語、人民團體開會均應使用國語;各級官員列席民意代表會議必須使用國語、
嚴加勸導商店及流動小販,不得使用外文商標、招牌;禁止電影院對外播放方言、外語,嚴加勸導街頭宣傳勿用方言;各級運動會嚴禁使用方言報告。[54]
2000年通過的《大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法》規定公車、捷運等交通工具,需播報閩南語、客家語。[55]
香港荃灣三棟屋博物館
香港[编辑]
主条目:香港客家話、新界原居民、香港語文和香港本土語言保育協會
香港原屬廣東省寶安縣,是客家人傳統聚居地之一。香港仍未開埠至1898年英國租借新界前,客家人已在今天的香港立足多年,屬香港原居民之一。在新界631個原住民村落裏(例如荃灣三棟屋),以客家人為主的村落有341個,佔54%。[56]根據2012年的《中國語言地圖集》,香港客家語被歸類為粵台片梅惠小片。[57]
2010年假如包括客家原居民和非原居[b]的客家人,则香港的客家人約有200萬人。[58]雖然客家人(包括原居民及非原居民的客家人)在港數量不少,但他們當中現時多數只有中、老年人仍使用客家語,[59]不少香港客家新一代都不會講客家話,或者只懂聽不懂講。這是由於1970年代初,來自中國內地移民帶來了不同的漢語變體(比如廣州話、四邑話、客家話、潮州話、泉漳話、福州話、上海話、山東話等),港英政府遂選擇了粵語作爲香港華人的統一中文口語。根據2011年香港人口普查數據顯示,以客家話為母語的僅有62,340人,佔香港人口的0.9%;[60][61]報稱通曉客家話的香港人,亦只有259,738人,佔香港人口的4.7%。[61][62]以上數據都顯示以客家語為母語的香港人口比例正逐年下降。[61]
政治[编辑]
太平軍迎擊清軍以客家人為主的十九路軍淞滬抗日陣亡將士陵園同盟會於日本成立時核心領導層46%為客家人青天白日旗首次用於戰場上是1900年惠州起義
客家人在中國歷史舞台時常擔當重要角色,從南宋末年,文天祥勤皇抗元「兵勢至梅州而大振,男執干戈,女貫甲裳,舉族赴義」。直到近代亦是推動中國歷史進程的主力「清季花縣洪天王清半壁,建國太平,百戰天亡,亙十七年,則民族革命之初祖也」。以及「以迄民國之成,紅花黃花之烈士、南征北伐之虎將、文昭武烈之輔相」均為客家人。客家人與近代中國革命之關係,從客家人在宋末不惜犧牲生命勤皇抗元,到明末清初不肯事清廷,退隱山林或參與反清復明。到清末太平天國起義、台灣和廣東的抗日運動、中法戰爭的抗敵,到孫中山的辛亥革命,海外客僑的貢獻。羅香林認為是民族意識,認為客家人最初因北方異族侵擾而被迫向南遷徙,故而骨子裡存在著仇恨外族的情緒,民族意識特別強,而這份意識在面對元代的蒙古人,清代的滿州人時皆已出現。[63][64]
太平天國金殿
「手握乾坤殺伐權,斬邪留正解民懸」,這曾是洪秀全對自己的勸勉。[65]並率眾謁明太祖陵舉行祀典,《祭明太祖陵寢文》「上慰吾皇在天之靈,下解百姓倒懸之急」。[66]鴉片戰爭後中國淪為半殖民地半封建國家,滿清政府為了支付戰爭賠款加緊橫徵暴斂,內部矛盾空前激化,1851年洪秀全發動了金田起義,並建立太平天國政權。1853年太平天國定都天京頒布了《天朝田畝制度》,為平均分配土地的具體方案。而《資政新篇》尊重科學技術,提倡興辦企業,主張工商謀利,發展資本主義,鼓勵私人資本,為一套向西方尋求先進技術的完整綱領。1856年太平天國軍事上達到了全盛時期,後因集團內訌所引發的天京事變令太平天國元氣大傷最終於1864年覆亡。[67]「經略蘇浙間,而立統軍,力撐危難,起連營笳鼓撼百城,無枉半生忠烈。」、「馳騁江淮地,弱冠臨陣,勇對刀兵,挾迴轉飚風橫千里,堪當一世英名。」在太平天國處於十分困難的境地時,雖經忠王李秀成、英王陳玉成等後期名將的努力,經過天京事變、石達開出走的太平天國在軍事上稍有起色,但終究缺乏回天之力。太平天國失敗原因有很多,比如西方列強支持滿清政府鎮壓太平天國等,受到了太平天國的影響和鼓舞,數十年後終於爆發了辛亥革命。而太平天國亦阻止了列強對中國殖民化的進程,主張對外開放、發展本國商業和對外貿易等,客觀上對中國近代化進程起了推動作用。[68]
商業[编辑]
張弼士檳城光祿第光祿第天井胡文虎新加坡虎豹別墅香港虎豹別墅
「客商」指客家商人,客商一詞出現於明清之際,是當時廣東的四大商幫,以廣東省、江西省、福建省三地的客籍商人為主,背後是遍布全球的客家人,這種突破地域界限的商幫,以文化為紐帶,崇尚詩禮傳家,守望互助。[69]客商是近現代民主革命和國家建設的支持者,是現代儒商文化的踐行者。[70]
客商鄭景貴檳城故居
明清時期廣東四大商幫為客家商幫、廣府商幫、潮州商幫、海南商幫,因為商業社團組織以及海外網絡的延伸,在近現代社會劇烈變革中不僅沒有消失,反而不斷演變壯大。目前客家商幫簡稱客商,已經超越傳統商幫的內涵,演變為全世界客籍實業家的組織,是華商網絡的成員和組織者之一。客商成員在近現代史上有著重要影響,又被稱為儒商。[71]客商在明清時期跨越省內各縣、全國各地到世界多國進行經商貿易,1840年以後,客商足跡遍布全球。近代客商張弼士是客籍商人的傑出代表,張弼士下南洋、辦實業、搞航運、開鐵路,創立「張裕葡萄酒」品牌,樹立了客商的文化精神。在客商中近現代出現了多位代表人物,從羅芳伯、葉亞來到姚德勝,從丘燮亭、謝樞泗到丘元榮,從田家炳、曾憲梓到今天活躍在中國乃至世界各地的客籍企業家。[72]張弼士的商業經營策略「人棄我取,人取我與。徵貴販賤,操奇致贏。力行則勤,擇人任時,能發能收,亦如呂尚之謀,孫吳用兵,商鞅行法,若志不足以權變,勇不足以決斷,仁不能以取予,強不能有所守,終不足以學斯術。」而近代客商最早有所成就的是羅芳伯,羅芳伯是廣東省梅縣人。1772年羅芳伯與百餘名親戚朋友漂洋過海,來到印尼婆羅洲,成立華僑與當地民眾相結合的軍隊,打敗了荷蘭殖民主義者的武裝入侵,受當地人和華僑的擁戴。為了更好地發展,羅芳伯組建了蘭芳公司,並設立「蘭芳大總制」。這是一個高度自治的工農商政一體的組織,有高度的自治權和經營權,時人稱他為「大唐總長」。客家人在印尼這片荒島上開墾土地,發展種植業,經營茶葉、橡膠等產業,並進行開採礦產,對城市的開發和建設上有重大影響。蘭芳公司不僅在經營上,而且在體制上都有其創造性,延續了108年。[73]
文化[编辑]
臺灣客家文化館六堆客家文化園區苗栗客家大院新北市客家文化園區
主条目:客家文化、廖萬石堂、三棟屋博物館和大坑火龍文化館
客家文化是中國南方漢族文化的重要組成部分,中華民國客家委員會在廣徵客家人士意見後,宣布將具備當代精神與意涵的「還我母語運動日」(12月28日),訂為中華民國「全國客家日」。[74]
客家文化歷史淵遠流長,近年來在時空交織的社會中,逐漸呈現其資產性,引起各界高度重視,亦因觀光休閒或媒體宣傳之故,而能見度與喜好度倍增,有識者乃適時將其與生活文化、生產文化相結合,則為文化產業,允值開發倡導。其若從客家地方再度區分,則包括歷史、鄉土、民俗、文化、自然景觀、地方特產等皆在其中,由於其與大眾生活息息相關,故皆樂見其展現文化生機與活力,而社區總體營造,正適時提供可行之途徑,將是客家文化產業活化之道。產業發展唯社區總體營造可以是一套策略構想,不外乎以人為本,以生活為核心,以傳統文化產業為基點。建立生態、環保與文化並重。結合客家地方文化特色與產業型態,推動傳統產業振興。鼓勵民間積極參與,建立民眾、專家、企業、政府四合一任務團隊。善用民間資源,如此方可藉由社區自主、自發、自治、自力、自願的總體力量,營造出客家文化產業最佳成果。[75]
近年來台灣客家透過行政院客家委員會的策略、非營利組織與社區發展組織的配合,透過創意的發揮,將客家文化融入於視覺藝術、數位網路與精緻生活產業中成為一種高附加價值的、跨越族群邊界的、生機蓬勃的客家文化創意產業。台灣客家最著名的桐花祭可說是客家文化創意產業的代表。客家委員會從2002年起舉辦客家桐花祭,希望透過文化紮根及精緻的文化活動,展現客家風華,同時加強景點的打造及文化藝術的裝置,妝點客家莊。在深耕文化、振興產業、帶動觀光、活化客莊上,創造了卓越成績。相較於傳統客家的文化認同,當代資訊科技與行銷管理手法,將客家文化從保護與維繫轉變成為一種能夠產生附加價值的文化產業。客家委員會成立之後,則出現了更多創新的技巧與特殊的表達形式,當代客家文化確實逐漸轉型為精緻生活文化的重要內涵。[76]
在相關客家文化事務機構大力推廣客家文化產業以及相關商品開發,讓客家文化產業蓬勃發展並具有特色。其中和文化創意相關的活動,包括客家桐花祭、客家音樂MV創作大賽、客語家庭標章LOGO、客家創意商品設計競賽、客語家庭LOGO徵選以及客動義民電腦動畫設計競賽等。目前客家文化相關的設計與創意活動豐富,從這些成功經驗可以發現藉由創意設計突顯客家文化的獨特風格及品味,對於文化傳承、創新並發揚具有顯著的效果。[77]
圍屋古鎮[编辑]
主条目:围龙屋
客家圍屋是漢晉塢堡的活化石,有方形、圓形、八角形和橢圓形等形狀的圍屋共有8,000餘座,規模大,造型美,科學實用而有特色。而客家土樓的夯土版築技術,是中国自古以来建城造牆積累下來的結晶。[78][79]客家人具有兩個基本特徵,其社會特徵是宗族共同體聚居,其建築特徵是圍堡式大屋。前者淵源於漢晉時期宗族共同體聚居制度和塢堡宗族聚居方式,後者淵源於漢晉時朝的塢堡建築。這兩種居住制度,因南遷後的生存、發展需要相結合,從而形成了具有客家特色的住宅和居住方式。[80]
惠州客家圍屋會龍樓模型
《史記.貨殖列傳》「潁川、南陽,夏人之居也,夏人政尚忠樸,猶有先王之遺風。....南陽西通武關、鄖關,東南受漢、江、淮。宛亦一都會也,俗雜好事,業多賈,其任俠,交通潁川,故至今謂之夏人。」豫州處於南北交界地帶的特殊位置,進入東晉南北朝後,南北戰爭常在此地展開,東晉劉毅任豫州刺史時就曾上表提到豫州接近北方胡族政權,這地方的人多以打仗為能事「忝任此州,地不為曠,西界荒餘,密邇寇虜,北垂蕭條,土氣強獷,民不識義,惟戰是習。逋逃不逞,不謀日會。比年以來,無月不戰,實非空乏所能獨撫。」由於戰亂的影響,許多人南渡到江淮間,流亡的人據險自保「永嘉之亂,百姓流亡,所在屯聚」聚保於山澤險阻形成塢堡,或叫壘壁、堡壁、屯塢、壁塢等等。地理位置的影響,豫州地區的塢堡出現時間很早,永嘉年間就發生匈奴劉聰遣人攻擊塢堡的事件「粲及其徵東王彌、龍驤劉曜等率眾四萬,長驅入洛川,遂出轘轅,周旋梁、陳、汝、潁之間,陷壘壁百餘。」豫州地區塢堡分布數量眾多,加上胡族政權也必須出動上萬人的軍隊來對付,可見塢堡的武裝力量也不弱。在江淮間聚保的移民來源,譚其驤《晉永嘉喪亂後之民族遷徙》曾分析晉永嘉亂後民族遷徙的情形,接受移民的地區分為幾個區域,「安徽省及河南之淮以南,湖北省之東部,江西省之北邊。」當時江淮間多被塢堡勢力所佔據,「流人塢主張平、樊雅等在譙,....又有董瞻、於武、謝浮等十餘部,眾各數百」這些塢主以自己的部曲為基礎,以各種手段組織流人成為士兵。選擇險阻而內有水泉及耕地之處,修築塢堡,平時在塢外農牧,故多築於山頂之平原或山澗處。所以塢堡不僅有軍事的功能,其實也是經濟自給自足的莊園。塢堡的組織有濃厚的家族性和地域性,其首領往往由一家所世襲,自訂法律以維持堡內的秩序。塢堡是基於共同利益而成,善於利用地理的險要來對抗外來入侵者。江淮間的塢堡勢力都沒有大到足以影響南北兩地政局。而這些勢力也並不完全聽命於東晉朝廷,他們在政治上有相當大的獨立性。能夠在兩大政權的夾擊下生存,甚至還能進一步發展成可以影響流移之地的地方勢力,大多是擁有強大宗族勢力的集團。[81]
深圳客家圍屋-鶴湖新居
客家民居营造技艺(客家土楼营造技艺、赣南客家围屋营造技艺)中华人民共和国国家级非物质文化遗产申报地区或单位福建省龙岩市福建省南靖县、华安县江西省龙南县分类传统技艺序号378编号项目Ⅷ—28登录2006年2011年2014年
廣東省:圍龍屋-花萼樓-榮槐樓-棣華圍-磐安圍-滿堂圍-四角樓-承德樓-人境廬-南華又廬- 原膴隆基-東昇圍-馨梓圍-崇林世居-善述圍-濟濟樓-泰安樓-德先樓-碧灧樓-永貞樓-善述圍-南陽世居-大塘世居-肇慶堂-崇慶第-繼善樓-兩秀新居-長興圍-輯瑞廬-光祿世居等。圍龍屋以廣東梅州為代表;於臺灣南部較多,而中部的石岡、東勢地區客家人則稱其作「圍屋」。[82]
江西省:東生圍-關西新圍-燕翼圍-栗園圍-漁仔潭圍-龍光圍-雅溪圍-西昌圍-沙壩圍-烏石圍等。江西龍南縣有全世界最多的客家圍屋。[83]
福建省:振成樓-齊雲樓-二宜樓-善慶樓-步雲樓-和昌樓-振昌樓-瑞雲樓等。[84]福建土樓:即福建龍岩和廣東大埔一帶的客家人所居住的大型民居群,以永定土樓為代表,已被列入世界文化遺產。[85]
深圳客家圍:鶴湖新居-大田世居-大萬世居-茂盛世居-豐田世居-龍田世居-新喬世居-西埔新居-正埔嶺世居-璇慶新居-吉坑世居-梅岡世居-環水樓-洪圍-貴湖塘老圍-迴龍世居-田豐世居-玉田世居-福田世居-秀嶺世居等。[86]
香港客家圍:沙田圍-上水圍-粉嶺圍-曾大屋-三棟屋-企嶺下新圍-蕉徑老圍-谷埔老圍等。[87]
祠堂(家廟):祭祀共同祖先的建築物,在傳統客家村落,祠堂是聚族而居的中心,宗族在祠堂祭祀祖先、討論族中大事、興辦教育,是宗族內部聯繫族眾的紐帶。[88]
伙房(夥房):夥房為「ㄇ」字型設計,正中央則是「廳下」﹙祭祀祖先的廳堂﹚,以屋頂高低作為輩份之區分,廚房共用,共用一口灶,一起伙食。[89]
走馬樓:有走廊可通行的樓屋,甚至騎馬可以在裡面暢行無阻,外形一字形、凹形或曲尺形,分上下兩層。[90]
五鳳樓:為土樓的一種形式,其樓依山形而建,呈層層高姿態,一般有五個層次,形如雁翅,故稱“五鳳樓”。[91]
四點金:主要特點為房屋四角升建有如近代砲台樓式的高層建築,樓四角均有槍眼。[92]
混合式:這是客家僑鄉民居建築形式的一種特殊風格,是將客家傳統的房屋結構結合西洋的建築藝術裝飾建造的混合型民居建築。較突出的有梅縣白宮鎮的“聯芳樓”、程江鎮的“萬秋樓”等。[93]
敬字亭:用於燒毀書有文字,受科舉制度影響,古人認為文字是神聖和崇高的,寫在紙上的文字,不能隨意褻瀆,即使是廢字紙,也必須誠心敬意地燒掉。[94]
客家古鎮:成都洛帶鎮-梅州百侯鎮-邵武和平鎮-龍巖永定客家古鎮-梅州松口鎮-長汀鎮-深圳甘坑客家小鎮-深圳觀瀾文化小鎮等。[95]
客家古村:贛縣白鷺村-河源南園古村-河源蘇家圍-河源林寨古村-韶關石塘古村-連城縣培田村-唐江盧屋古村-梅州橋溪古村等。[96]
宋城文化[编辑]
贛州古名虔州,是中國當今保存完好的宋代城池,有宋城博物館之稱,客家文化源遠流長。章江、貢江在龜角尾合二為一成贛江,客家先民南遷溯贛江而至就在龜角尾登陸,贛州的宋代古城牆為中國五大古城牆之一,宋城牆沿江而築,垛牆、炮城、馬面、城門保存依舊。[97]
贛州軍門樓
贛州是客家先民南遷到達的第一站,是客家民系的發祥地和客家人的主要聚居地之一,全市客家人口占95%以上,世稱客家搖籃。 [98]位於章江、貢江匯合成贛江之處,是被譽為千里贛江第一城的歷史文化名城。始建於北宋嘉祐年間的八境台和全中國唯一保存完整的宋代古城牆構成了贛州古城的一道特有的風景線。陳寅恪有一論斷「華夏民族之文化,歷數千載之演進,造極於趙宋之世。」贛州恰好得名於宋代,沿用至今已近千年。在宋代由於贛州居於中原通往嶺南之要衝,借長江、鄱陽湖、贛江、章江水利交通之便,成就了商賈如雲,貨物如雨的景況,至今保存了宋代的城牆、樓台、石窟、窯址、碼頭、浮橋、佛塔等眾多古蹟。其中開中國八景文化先河的八境台,以名句青山遮不住,畢竟東流去的鬱孤台,中國唯一仍在發揮作用、福澤千年的宋代城市地下排水系統的福壽溝,藏有宋代珍貴文物的慈雲塔,開鑿於唐代、興盛於宋代的通天岩石窟,中國唯一保存完整的宋代磚砌城牆,宋代江西四大窯場之一的七里窯,周敦頤、曾幾、蘇東坡、辛棄疾、岳飛、文天祥、洪邁等宋代名人在贛州吟詠留下的詩詞歌賦皆書寫著贛州這座宋城的獨特魅力。[99]名人雅士曾在此流連,王陽明曾在此講學,辛棄疾的“青山遮不住,畢竟東流去”吟誦的也正是這裡的景色,王安石等宋代名人都曾駐足贛南,寄情山水,留下了許多墨跡華章。南宋詞人辛棄疾留下千古絕唱《菩薩蠻·書江西造口壁》,理學創始人周敦頤在這裡寫下了著名的《愛蓮說》,王陽明在這裡潛心研究心學,湯顯祖在這裡創作了《牡丹亭》,風水祖師楊救貧在這裡創立了形勢派風水理論,是宋明理學的奠基地、客家文化的孕育地和傳播地。 [100]
教育[编辑]
贛州文廟河源尊經閣梅州魁星閣汀州文廟
在古代由於客家地區存在崇文重教、耕讀傳家的社會傳統,形成學術積澱,普遍存在三代進士、一腹三翰林等現象。當有宗族子弟蟾宮折桂取得功名中進士、舉人者,會於祠堂外圍竪立石旗桿以表彰族中取得功名的子弟。[101]
河源佗城大成殿
客家人通過讀書中舉實現「朝為田舍郎,暮登天子堂」的夢想,躋身於統治階級行列,反過來又為國家推行禮樂教化,實現其修身、齊家、治國、平天下的理想。[102]在定居地創辦塾學,教育子弟,傳播文明,由家族開基祖或家族中德高望重的先祖制訂家規、家訓,其中一些家族把家訓以楹聯的形式鐫刻、張貼在居所的門框及廳堂牆上,教育族中子弟奮發。「振綱立紀,成德達材」、「能不為息患挫志,自不為安樂肆志」。這些傳家楹聯,其主要內容包含立業、報國、修養、處世、氣節等方面。楹聯的字裡行間傳達著忠孝仁義禮智信的哲理,為其裔孫確立了為人處世的規範,樹立了自我修養的標桿。[103]客家人的家訓,各個姓氏雖有差異,但都有一個共同之處,教育子孫後代遵循「孝悌忠信禮義廉恥」。這些代代沿襲的家訓,成為理想追求和原生動力,體現著人生的價值所在。子孫受家訓熏陶,恢弘先緒,崇文重教,睦鄰相助,振奮家聲。家無綱紀則廢,國無綱紀則亂,客家先祖把「禮義廉恥」奉為圭臬,在家訓中多有體現。而孝悌觀念深入人心,孝是忠的基礎,忠是孝的延伸。「忠信」是客家家訓中又一貫穿始終的顯著特徵,家是小的國,國是大的家。對「家」「國」懷著深厚的感情,客家先祖把這種「興家報國」的家國情懷用家訓的方式向後人生動詮釋、諄諄教導。「仁」是儒家思想的核心,孝悌是「仁」的根本,具體地說,在家庭裡要做到「孝悌」,正確處理家庭內的人際關係,然後把家庭的人際關係推而廣之,從而正確處理社會上人與人之間的關係,這是興家旺業、社會和諧的基礎,客家家訓訓誡後人要注重道德修養,把「孝悌仁愛」視為立身處世之要。[104]
敬字文化[编辑]
敬字惜紙,是客家人的傳統禮俗,敬字文化與客家人對於惜敬字紙的崇拜,祖先認為文字能傳遞人們的感情,文字也具有靈,文字和紙張發明後,知識足以累積、傳承,此敬字風俗所展現的一個族群文化現象與生存哲學,敬字亭除了當成焚化字紙的場所,實際上也因為民間信仰的多樣性及實用價值而產生許多不同的功能。文字和紙張的發明,可說是人類文明發展最重要的里程碑。有了文字和紙張後,人類的知識不但得以累積,也更容易傳播,透過知識的傳播,不但讓整個人類文明大幅進步,生產力也得到大幅的提升,任意撕裂、塗抹書本,以及丟棄字紙等行為,更是對文字的不敬。[105]
台灣屏東竹田達達港敬字亭
文字的起源,依史籍考證,在上古時代,先以結繩記事為文字的起始,而後發展為圖畫刻於貝殼、龜殼、木片之上。至軒轅黃帝時代,由史官倉頡把已有的文字加以整理,成為有系統的文字,直至周朝才有六書之體,六書為文字的構造原則,即象形、指事、會意、形聲、假借、轉注。古時文人學子以倉頡造字、蔡倫造紙的艱難,故對文章、字紙都非常的敬重,不敢有絲毫的污穢或侮辱,文字的創造,使歷史得以延續,文化得以傳承,使人類趨向文明,先民敬惜字紙,建造敬字亭,焚燒字紙用以祭祀倉頡,並傳承敬惜字紙文化。焚燒字紙的另一用意是期使字紙能上達天聽,保佑後代子孫能高中科舉,光宗耀祖。故敬字亭又稱聖蹟亭、敬聖亭、惜字亭、字紙亭,為讓家族的子弟受教育讀書識字,科舉考試也就成為重要途徑之一,晴耕雨讀之風於是形成,世代相傳。敬重文明的觀念由此而生,因此客家人對於文人或文明之神特別尊敬,如文昌帝君、韓昌黎、孔夫子、製字先師倉頡等,並養成敬惜字紙的風俗習慣,代表文化遺跡的敬字亭就在此時誕生。客家祖訓有文字的紙張不能隨便丟棄,也不能墊坐在屁股之下,古代人對於文字紙張愛惜的程度,是現代人無法了解的,古代每個讀書人一定會在書桌旁擺一個字紙簍,將不要的字紙丟入字紙簍裝滿之後,再拿去敬字亭焚燒。隨著時光的流逝,將字紙放入敬字亭焚燒,這項傳承已漸漸的被人們所淡忘,今日科技的發達,教育的普及,都是因為有文字紙張的創造發明,故受儒家思想的影響,客家人對知識崇拜之深,從晴耕雨讀,祠堂的棟對、燈對上的文字,街頭巷尾的敬字亭,可見重視教育的程度。[106]
祠堂文化[编辑]
臺灣屏東萬巒劉氏彭城堂臺灣屏東內埔謝氏寶樹堂臺灣屏東崇蘭蕭氏家廟臺灣彰化永靖邱氏敦睦堂
客家人重視血緣關係,每個宗族都建立祠堂廟宇祀奉先祖,祭祀時男丁需全部參加,按世輩和年齡排列,沒有富貴貧賤之分,每個姓氏都把祖宗的事跡和族人的世系加以記錄於族譜留傳。[107]虽历经千年沧桑巨变,客家人依然保留着许多风俗习惯与文化传统,用黄遵宪的话说“礼俗犹留三代前”,依然恪守着儒家伦理道德。其中,敬祖崇礼、尊师重教、厚德载物、自强不息等核心价值理念已经融入客家人的文化血脉,成为客家文化的精神品质。作为客家传统文化的重要载体,以客家宗祠为文化空间,包括宗族谱牒以及祭祖仪式活动等在内的客家宗祠文化集中表达了客家人的价值理念。[108]
香港荃灣三棟屋祠堂
《禮記·曲禮》「君子將營宮室,宗廟為先。」立廟祭祀最初是貴族身份的象徵,「天子七廟,諸侯五廟,大夫三廟,庶人祭於寢」。直到北宋實行與士大夫共治天下的國策,士大夫提倡恢復宗法,以強調家國一體。打破禮不下庶人的原則,放寬宗族祭祖禮制,允許民間創設祭祀場所。與漢唐墓祠家廟不同,受北宋復興先秦儒學影響,祠堂乃西周宗廟的恢復。後因元明之際皇權專制強化,在利用和打擊宗族之間不斷調整,當皇權足夠強大不需要依賴地方宗族時,祠堂便消失殆盡。明中葉以前就只允許貴族或有品階的官員設立祠堂,民間庶民建祠並不合法。明中葉以後皇權不得不依賴於宗族對地方進行控制,於是才正式允許庶民建祠以祭先祖。祠堂一般有堂號、堂聯和祠規,堂號即名號,目的讓子孫知曉本族來源,追憶祖先功德,勸善懲惡,教育族人。而堂聯亦稱祠聯,主要訓勉後人珍惜家族聲望,向上進取,內容多為儒家倫理。[109]客家人會在祠堂門額上設置門匾,門匾上鐫刻四字橫批,或標明姓氏來源,或彰顯家教理念,「清白傳家」、「潁川流芳」、「相國遺風」。門匾起源於漢魏時期門閥制度的「門第閥閱」,本是士族用來標榜門戶的功狀,東晉時期客家先民由中原遷至江淮,唐末因江淮混戰湧入贛汀地區,兩宋進入兩廣地區,門匾已演變為一種崇尚祖訓、銘記歷史、注重家教、愛惜名節的文化,歷經千百年。匾框選取與自家姓氏相關的成語、典故或體現宗族理念的四字詞語鐫刻其上,有的還配上吉祥圖案,融書法、繪畫於一體。大多數門匾是各姓氏世代傳承下來,為各姓專用,有些也可通用,鐫刻了客家人的姓氏、祖居地、郡望和遷徙路徑等標記,突出體現了客家人不忘先祖、牢記歷史的文化特徵。門匾曾經是客家人扎根、立業、興家的精神旗幟,因此客家人非常重視門匾的書寫和繪制儀式。書寫門匾的先生要為同姓,書寫時間也要選擇吉日。到了那天長輩和書寫門匾的先生到場,擺放好三牲、三果、茶酒等祭祀品,率領宗族男丁,先叩天地、再敬祖宗,然後才請先生書寫門匾,門匾寫好後,還有揭匾、鳴炮等儀式。[110]客家人通過宗祠牌匾、祭祖穆宗、上燈敬老等文化載體傳承家風,在城鎮化的過程中傳統文化日漸衰落,而客家傳統家風的傳承與弘揚,離不開民間團體發起的宗族文化復興活動,更離不開民眾日常生活對家風的堅持和守護。[111]
義民信仰[编辑]
苗栗社寮岡義民廟桃園平鎮褒忠祠花蓮竹田義民亭新竹新埔枋寮褒忠亭義民廟
義民廟對於臺灣客家文化有很重大的意義,不僅代表了臺灣客家人的精神、文化,也是臺灣客家人的信仰,可以說義民廟是臺灣客家人的廟,而義民廟在臺灣分布多處,其中較為知名的有桃園平鎮、新埔枋寮、苗栗社寮崗三處。[112]有認為義民廟所奉祀的義民爺,是被朝廷表揚的為保鄉衛國而犧牲生命之客家人,是助官平亂的英靈,[113]然而事實上義民爺還包括泉州裔福佬人與平埔原住民。
義民廟內所懸掛的的「褒忠匾」為義民信仰重要指標
義民並非臺灣開發史上所獨有的歷史現象,歷史上中國各地亦不乏義民的組設,《尚書‧多方》云「乃惟以爾多方之義民,不克永于多享」,對國家而言,義民之「義」通常與「忠」字連用。宋以後,所謂的「義民」是「忠義民兵」的簡稱,明代「義民」除軍事功能外,開始有賑濟的社會功能及授官的政治功能意涵,清代各地也出現過不少義民,其中臺灣「義民」主要表現為助平民變的政治及軍事功能以及穩定社會秩序的社會功能,而從取得開墾的合法性等在經濟層面獲享可觀利益來看,義民角色背後也表現濃厚的經濟功能色彩。大體上「義民」的名稱,往往由統治者的角度而訂名,清代也不例外。
所不同者,清代義民是先自稱,然後因戰功再由朝廷敕封。康熙六十年朱一貴事件,朱案之時建「大清義民旗」,成為官軍平亂股肱。義民及義民信仰與客家族群認同的關係,時至今日義民爺信仰已成為客家人在臺灣的在地化特徵,也是臺灣的客家人和臺灣以外其他地區的客家人在文化上最顯著的差異。此外,義民爺信仰的背後似乎也涉及集體的歷史記憶是否是選擇性的形塑的問題。從義民「忠義」的正面形象論述在客家族群不斷被重新建構乃至強化突顯這點來觀察,答案已經呼之欲出,也某種程度呼應創發的傳統。一方面傳統依賴創造而再生,另方面創造卻又需要傳統的啟發。傳統與創造之間呈現互動的涵攝關係,這是「歷史意識」與「現實意識」呈現辯證關係的明證。
歷史記憶可以重新再建構,集體記憶即是一種社會性建構的概念,不同的群體往往存在著不同的集體記憶。集體記憶維繫著族群的認同,研究集體記憶有助歷史研究過去的本質。然而臺灣客家族群從清代以來不斷透過乾隆「褒忠」御旨及褒忠亭內外的楹聯、匾額、碑文、古文書等文字意象正面論述,重構及強化義民的「忠義」形象,並凝塑成為義民精神,背後似突顯集體的歷史記憶乃是選擇性的形塑或再建構。[114]
民俗傳統[编辑]
民俗文物是客家文化的具體反映,也是生活的軌跡和祖先的智慧結晶。在昔日漫長的歷史長河裡,曾經隨著先民走過艱辛坎坷的歲月,一品一物均是先民利用大自然資源所創造的器物,經過長時間的累積,演進而成為各種不同的民俗。因此文物的保存彌足彰顯精神的內涵,代表生活的意義與價值。隨著居住環境、風俗習慣等的不同,所流傳的民俗文物也就各異其趣。[115]
客家民俗藝術伴隨著客家人的生活延續至今,是客家文化的重要組成部分,作為客家民俗文化在現實生活中的形象載體,客家民俗集中反映了客家人的精神生活和民俗觀念,是客家文化形成與發展的實物見證。[116]在古代所言的禮俗,為社會生活的規範,人類自群居開始之後,便會有一種共同遵守的民俗儀式。後來賢哲之士將這種民俗儀式系統化之後,便成為禮。一般來說人在某一社會團體中,應當有一定的行為標準,用以表現人的價值。這種行為標準即是一種社會的規範,由國家制訂條文,強制行使,稱之為法律。反之如果是由人民自行遵守,由習慣變為本能,則稱為禮俗。禮俗起源甚早,從遠古伏羲時代,就定嫁娶之禮,以儷皮為聘。繼以儷皮為聘禮後,還得必告父母。到了夏商又出現了親迎於庭的儀節。周代是禮儀集大成的時代,逐漸形成一套完整儀節的婚姻禮儀,整套儀式合為六禮。漢朝集結編撰於《周禮》《儀禮》與《禮記》中。[117]客家文化的核心精神是以孔孟之道為核心的儒家思想,是儒家的人文精神。這種人文精神在客家文化意識中的主要內涵及其表現是把孔孟之道尊為聖賢之道,視三綱五常為處世為人的是非道德標準。在客家人的意識中最重忠、孝、節、義,把不忠、不孝、不仁和失節視為大逆不道,同時也極注重仁、信、禮、智,把不仁、不信、非禮、非智視為最大不敬和缺德。客家人經歷了長期的遷徙過程,故能夠更為廣泛地接觸外界的文化。不單將傳統民俗文化中有價值的東西繼承下來,也將周邊各種文化意識中有價值的東西吸收過來。在進入近代以後,客家文化意識形成了既帶有濃厚的理想主義色彩,以富於求實精神的特徵,形成了重名節、薄功利、重孝悌、薄強權、重文教、薄無知、重信義、薄小人等為人處世的道德價值觀念。[118]
音樂[编辑]
傳統音樂[编辑]
主条目:客家山歌、客家八音和廣東漢樂
廣東漢樂也稱外江樂、中州古調、國樂、儒家音樂等,在原中州音樂的二黃、西皮、大板等板式的基礎上,吸收潮樂、廟堂音樂、崑曲、椰子曲的優點,形成獨特且具有地方色彩的一種民間音樂。音律保留了中國古代民間的雅樂音階,特點為七律制音階。廣東漢樂可分為儒樂、中軍班、外江弦三大類。儒樂為過去文人雅士所偏好的一種室內音樂,以絲弦樂器為主的演奏,主要有古箏、琵琶、椰胡、洞簫等。中軍班又稱八音,包含戲曲吹唱、大調吹奏、小調吹奏、祭禮音樂、喜慶音樂等,以嗩吶主奏樂器,奏曲牌音樂,配以大鼓、蘇鑼、大小鈸、碗鑼、銅金、小鑼、馬鑼等打擊樂器。[119]
廣東漢樂作為非物質文化遺產,以其深厚的文化內涵和古樸典雅的樂曲風格享譽。是古代漢民由中原南遷中逐漸形成的樂種,具有鮮明的客家文化特色,距今已經有一千多年的歷史。從魏晉到宋朝的漫長時期隨著客家人多次南遷而流傳到南方,在河南已失傳的《大樂》在粵東客家地區保留下來,經過千百年的發展,形成客家音樂的獨特風格。廣東漢樂分佈在廣東梅州、韶關、惠州等地區,又以梅州大埔縣為代表。許多漢樂大師都是客家人,他們不但活躍於廣東客家地區大埔縣等,而且把漢樂傳到新加坡、馬來西亞、台灣、上海等地。比如東北九一八事變後,何育齋先生到上海創辦了逸響社,要弘揚民族音樂精神,兩、三年裡造就了一批漢樂人才。客家人不管在哪個省區,都有一個共同之處,就是都珍視傳統文化,珍視古樸優雅的漢樂聲。廣東漢樂有著深厚的歷史文化,既傳承了古代中原地區的宮廷音樂和民間音樂的精華,又吸收兼容了周邊地區傳統的民間音樂,形成了獨特、完整的音樂體系。[120]廣東漢樂曲目豐富,從已整理出版的《廣東漢樂曲目集》來看,共有曲目612首,其中絲弦樂430首,清樂56首,漢樂大鑼鼓23首,中軍班音樂62首,廟堂音樂31首。代表曲目有絲弦曲《單點尾》、《玉山坡》、《思夫》,嗩吶曲《粉疊》、《普天樂》、《玉芙蓉》,廟堂音樂有《一封書》、《水底魚》等。[121]
流行音樂[编辑]
主条目:客語流行音樂
客家流行音樂的相關稱呼有許多種,像是客家創作歌曲、客家新音樂、客家創新音樂、客家流行歌曲,雖然都不盡相同,但其解釋都有共同之處,使用客語演唱、不可是舊的旋律放上新創歌詞的翻唱、曲風有當代流行的元素。
臺灣新竹客家人-歌手Hebe田馥甄
臺灣客家人的現代音樂,因受日本及西洋音樂的影響,加上電視錄影帶大量的進入家家戶戶,早已挑戰了傳統音樂,目前以兒歌童謠及現代客家流行音樂最為風行。客家流行音樂在臺灣發展的時間雖然並不長,但在近年來有許多音樂工作者加入客家流行音樂創作,這其中的影響不外乎有族群意識的日漸遽增,以及在2000年後公家機關與民間機構的成立如雨後春筍,像是客家委員會的成立、客家電視台的開播,對於客家文化的傳播與傳承都有許多的幫助。在音樂方面像是金曲獎中增設的「客語專輯獎」和「最佳客語歌手獎」,或是各縣市舉辦的客家創作歌謠比賽等,則都有助於客家流行音樂的發展和推廣。如今在當代客家文化發展已逐漸蓬勃,包括戲曲、音樂、傳統文化的保存,都有更大的舞台可以發展,而客家流行音樂也使用現代音樂的風格和形式,讓客家流行音樂與其他流行音樂無異,差別只在語言的使用不同。創作者使用客語來與現代流行音樂風格結合,不論是爵士、搖滾、嘻哈,還是民謠、Bossa Nova,這些現代流行音樂的風格都能從各類作品中看到,但客家流行音樂創作者不只是追求以現代的流行音樂風格來創作,更試圖讓客家傳統文化以新的樣貌重新展現,一些唱片公司亦致力於客語歌曲專輯的發行與推廣。[122]
戲劇[编辑]
主条目:客家漢劇、客家大戲、梅州客家山歌劇、採茶戲、花朝戲和東河戲
漢劇是地方戲曲劇種之一,舊名「楚調」、漢調。原以秦腔經襄陽南下演變出來的西皮為主要腔調,後又吸收了安徽傳來的二黃。同徽劇相互影響,在發展的過程中形成了荊河、襄河、府河、漢河四支流派。對湘劇、川劇、贛劇等劇種都有影響。[123]漢劇在客家地區流傳,使用客家方言演唱,已有數百年歷史,被譽為南國牡丹,與湖北漢劇、閩西漢劇等同宗同源,在廣東地區的被命名為廣東漢劇,是廣東三大劇種之一。[124]漢劇臉譜有百多種,以黑、紅、白三色為主,黑色象徵剛勇,紅色象徵忠賢,白色和青色象徵陰險、奸詐。其角色行當分公角、老生、小生、老旦、正旦、花旦、紅淨、丑角等九大行。傳統廣東漢劇劇目約有八百多個。較為著名的有《百里奚認妻》《齊王求將》。[125]
廣東漢劇起源於梅州大埔,據大埔縣誌和有關資料記載明末清初已有漢劇活動,以後活動頻繁,組建社團戲社,源流至今,活躍在粵東、閩西一帶。[126]楊懋建在道光年間《夢華瑣簿》「廣州樂部分為二,曰外江班,曰本地班,大抵外江班近徽班。」而光緒年間梅州人李寧圃《程江竹枝詞》「江上蕭蕭暮雨時,家家篷底理哀絲,怪他楚調兼潮調,半唱消魂絕妙詞。」錢熱儲在民國二十二年出版的《漢劇提綱》「唯在贛之南、嶺之東,及閩之西部者,皆本其原音,不加增易,故特標其名曰外江。」[127]廣東漢劇以西皮、二黃作為主要聲腔,以中州音韻為唱語的劇種,原稱「外江戲」的廣東漢劇直到1933年在廣東大埔人錢熱儲著《漢劇提綱》一書,將外江戲稱為廣東漢劇,從此約定俗成,沿稱至今。[128]廣東漢劇唱腔質樸醇厚、悠揚典雅,兼有大板、昆腔、佛曲和民間小調等,唱腔結構屬板腔體,主要特色樂器為頭弦、大鑼、吊喇子。[129]廣東漢劇因其藝術風格與湖北漢劇已有所不同,為顯示區別,1956年正式定名為「廣東漢劇」,1959年成立廣東漢劇院,院址設在廣東省東北部的梅州市,這一別具特色的地方戲曲劇種是客家文化的組成部分,在客家文化及南方戲曲藝術的研究中具有其重要的參考價值。 [130]
飲食[编辑]
主条目:客家菜、梅州腌面、擂茶飯和生魚膾
鹽焗雞釀豆腐芋頭扣肉三杯雞
著名的客家菜有梅菜扣肉、酿豆腐。传统的客家招牌菜是盐焗鸡、客家酿豆腐、猪肚鸡、酿苦瓜、梅菜扣肉、三杯鸭、白斩河田鸡、兜汤、汀州泡猪腰、仙人冻、麒麟脱胎、腐卷、客家盆菜、四星望月、芋子包、芋子饺等与潮州菜比较,客家菜的口感偏重“肥、咸、熟”,在粤菜或闽菜系中独树一帜。[131]
客家粄菓
《舌尖上的中國》第二季美食顧問、河南開封飲食文化博物館館長孫潤田指出客家飲食保留了中州古味,是古代飲食文化的活化石。[132]而廣東東江多山川地貌、氣候物產與中原最相近,東江一帶的客家人飲食習俗得以最大程度保留中原風貌。客家菜用料以家畜、家禽的肉類為主,所重皆為陸生肉類。菜餚風格講求主料突出、造型古樸,以鹽定味,以湯提鮮,力求酥爛香濃。和以海鮮為主的廣州菜、潮州菜不同,客家菜和豫菜一樣,烹調方式以北方常見的煮、燉、熬、釀、燜等技法見長,頗有中原遺風。另外孫潤田表示除了日常飲食習慣上,客家人的民俗習俗也與中原地區一脈相承。[133]
粄是客家人用糯米製作的各式糕點通稱,例如早期農業社會生兒育女會製作新丁粄敬拜神明,祈求小孩平安;清明時節會製作艾粄來祭祀祖先;發粄則有發財的象徵,至於糍粑,也是粄的一種。[134]粄食在客家飲食中扮演著不可或缺的角色,因粄食製成的料理具有飽足感且持久,隨著時間的發展,粄食不再只是飯桌上拿來果腹的正餐,更發展了出許多不同的料理,從主食、點心到儀式供品,都能看到粄食的身影。[135]客家人在不同季節時令來製作各類粄食製品,如蘿蔔粄、紅豆粄及艾草粄等。除了婚喪喜慶、迎神賽會及年節祭祖外,有時也會製作具吉祥祝福之涵義的粄來宴請親友。[136]
分佈城市[编辑]
梅州贛州惠州深圳
當今屬於客家大本營的城市是指廣東省梅州市、惠州市、河源市、深圳市、韶關市,江西省贛州市和福建省的龍巖市,以上合共七個城市。[137][138]
惠州朝京門
在廣東省、江西省、福建省、廣西省、四川省、湖南省、浙江省、海南省等省份的城市都有一些分布,而最為集中的地區是江西省南部、福建省西部、廣東省東北部等與江西省交界地區,被稱為客家大本營。[139]與客家大本營接壤,曾被提議歸入客家大本營的城市主要是指廣東省清遠市、福建省三明市。其它與客家大本營接壤,並且客家文化在當地形成較大影響力的城市有廣東省東莞市、廣州市、汕尾市、揭陽市,福建省漳州市,江西省吉安市。[140]其中梅州市是台灣客家的主要原籍原鄉,東莞市是拉丁美洲客家的主要原籍原鄉。遠離客家大本營,而客家文化佔有重要影響力的城市是廣西壯族自治區賀州市、玉林市、防城港市、北海市,海南省儋州市,廣東省茂名市、雲浮市、湛江市,以及台灣的高雄市、屏東縣、桃園市、新竹縣、苗栗縣。而馬來西亞的沙巴州的華人是以客家為主要民系的。[141][142]
臺灣客家的原籍主要是汀州府的長汀、上杭、武平、連城、永定,漳州府的南靖、平和、詔安、雲霄,潮州府的大埔、豐順、海陽(今潮安)、潮陽、揭陽、普寧、惠來、饒平,嘉應州(梅州)的嘉應(今梅縣)、鎮平(今蕉嶺)、興寧、長樂(今五華)、平遠,惠州府的海豐、陸豐。
而目前臺灣客家人在臺灣分佈的情況核心區包括北部的桃園、新竹、宜蘭的壯圍、冬山、三星;中部的苗栗、臺中東勢、石岡、新社、南投國姓與雲林崙背;南部的高雄的美濃、六龜、杉林、屏東的高樹、長治、麟洛、內埔、竹田、萬巒、新埤和佳冬;東部花蓮的鳳林、富里、瑞穗、吉安、壽豐、玉里;臺東的關山、池上等。
其中桃園市的客家人口數約為66.7萬人,新竹縣為28.8萬人,新竹市約為9.1萬人,苗栗縣約為36.3萬人,合計140.9萬人,約佔臺灣地區客家人口的40.5%,幾乎佔了四成,是客家核心地區中的核心,通稱為「北客」。至於「南客」則以高屏六堆地區為主,除內埔、萬巒、竹田、麟洛、長治五鄉毗鄰成為客家庄中心地區外,佳冬、新埤兩地另於南方連成一地,北有高樹,隔一河鄰接美濃、杉林,六龜則遠在北部另成一區。[143]
團體[编辑]
崇真教會[编辑]
「客家」對譯「Hakka」是來自於巴色會(Basel Mission)傳教士的書寫與著作,其中更是與香港地區的傳教過程有著密不可分之關聯,因香港崇真會前身是巴色會,對於客家人的互動關係具有十分重要的影響性。巴色會傳教士1847年進入香港,1852年便在港島的客家人社區建立了第一所教會「救恩堂」。而巴色會之所以在香港和華南基督教傳播史上被視為「客家教會」,很重要的理由在於其用客家話傳教,主導客家源流探討的羅香林教授,本身即是巴色教會的長老。巴色差會來自德國與瑞士交界的一座巴色城「Basel」的譯音。其成立於1815年9月25日,開創之後則興建神學院,培養傳教士前往世界各地進行宣教事工。1847年前往南中國廣東客家地區,正是如此巴色會成為世界上首位以客家地區傳教,且針對客家人宣道之差會。[144]
在清末民初有許多西方傳教士前來客家地區傳教,在廣東客家地區的傳教機構有天主教的巴黎外方傳教會,基督教的巴色會、浸信會、長老會、安息會、聚會處、真耶穌會。直到今日即使西方傳教士被迫放棄在中國的宣教基地,但在當地的客家人依舊有許多人繼續保持他們的信仰。在各個宣教機構當中,最早開始進行客家研究的,就是巴色會的傳教士,巴色會的傳教士自1847年開始來華進行宣教工作,很快的就決定以客家人作為主要的宣教對象,對客家地區宣教有重要貢獻與實際出版成果的西方傳教士有韓山明、黎力基、歐德禮、韋腓立、畢安等人。韓山明被認為是第一位專門向客家人傳教的基督教傳教士,雖然他只在中國短短的七年,隨後就病逝香港,但是他卻留下許多重要的資料,如他與日後擔任太平天國軍師的重要人物,洪秀全族弟洪仁玕相識,一方面教導洪仁玕西方的知識與基督教教義,並為他受洗,另一方面也以他對洪仁玕的認識與洪仁玕的口述內容,寫成《太平天國起義記》,成為太平天國早期研究重要資料。而在語言方面,他也整理了共180頁的客家方言字典的手稿。黎力基牧師除了宣教的工作之外,他翻譯了客語羅馬字拼音版本的《客語俗話馬太傳福音書》,可以說是目前已經發現最早的客語方言聖經;1865年他又再度翻譯出客語羅馬字《路加傳福音書》,1866年又與韋腓立合作翻譯出版《馬太福音》、《路加福音》修訂本。除了客語羅馬字聖經的翻譯工作之外,黎力基牧師也編寫了《客英辭典》。歐德禮雖然只在巴色會工作四年,但是他的客家研究根源是從這四年開始奠基,並建立在韓山明牧師和黎力基牧師研究的基礎上,即使後來他雖離開差會,但是他對客家研究依然十分有興趣,並把各種觀察的現象與客家的特點撰寫成民族誌資料,在《中日釋疑》上一連發表十二篇有關客家人的文章,是最早以客家作為族群研究的專文之一,內容包括客家歷史源流、文學、宗教信仰等。[145]在今天的香港島西環一帶,步入西邊街與高街轉角處,在鱗次櫛比的樓群中間,聳立著一座外觀古樸的哥德式教堂,教堂上懸金色的十字架,正向圓拱窗之上則題著「救恩堂」三字,沿着寬敞的階梯步入教堂內,是鑲嵌著彩色窗子的圓拱形禮拜堂。這裡便是香港基督教崇真會歷史最悠久的一座教堂,亦是其前身巴色會在香港建立的第一所教堂。1923年香港七所巴色會堂會聯合改為香港崇真會,其背景與一戰期間總會力量削弱、地方教會自主性大增有關。其後雖然與中國大陸成立的中華基督教崇真會合併,但自立格局已成,這也就是其後經歷了中日戰爭、日本殖民統治香港、以及中國大陸政局1949年的巨變,該會不但未受到強烈衝擊,反而日益鞏固,並成為吸納一波又一波信徒的基礎所在。雖然時至今日,其客家人的色彩隨時代變遷而逐漸淡化,但「客家教會」的歷史記憶依然存在。[146]
崇正總會[编辑]
崇正總會是客家人的世界性組織,世界上有不少國家和地區,如英國、法國、美國、加拿大、台灣、香港等都有崇正總會的組織。[147]崇正源出儒家思想和倫理道德的推崇,以「崇正」為天下客家的大旗,成為客家精神最精辟最集中也最有號召力的體現。考崇正《晉書·顧和列傳》「禮所以軌物成教,故有國家者莫不崇正明本,以一其統,斯人倫之紀,不二之道也。」[148]
世界客属文化交流中心
香港崇正總會原名旅港崇正工商總會,成立於1921年,在香港中文大學中文系主任賴際熙教授等的倡議下,成立了一個永久性的社團組織,即崇正工商總會。這個組織最初雖未冠以客家的名稱,但一開始就高舉「崇正黜邪」、「崇尚正義」的客家精神的旗幟,以廣泛聯繫海內外客家人為己任,得到海內外客家人的普遍認同。在1971年9月迎來了香港崇正總會誕生五十週年的日子。這時該團體通過編印客家系譜、創建崇正會館、推進教育事業、致力救災募債、廣聯友會等一系列舉措。1971年9月28日,為慶祝崇正大廈落成,在舉行香港崇正總會成立五十週年的金禧慶典大會上,經美國紐約崇正會的建議,應全球客家社團的要求,舉行了首屆世界客屬懇親大會,來自全世界各國家、地區的上千名代表匯聚香港。在首屆世界客屬懇親大會上,香港崇正總會理事長黃石華博士被公推為大會主席團主席。在大會致詞中黃石華博士說,在今天金禧之期舉行世界客屬懇親代表大會,建立世界客屬崇正組織,共謀同僑福利與事業發展,復興中華文化,發揚客家人之崇正精神。從此,世界客屬懇親大會這一組織形式終於得到全球客家人的廣泛認同,成為海內外客家人團結的象徵。自此之後,世界客屬懇親大會每隔兩年召開一次,一屆接一屆地在全世界各個國家、地區隆重舉行。[149]參與人數也由最初的幾百人迅速擴增到數千人,內容也由原來側重於聯誼懇親而拓展為包含文化、經貿和學術等全方位的交流,世界客屬懇親大會已不單純是海內外客屬鄉親的聚會,而是堪稱為全球華人無論在文化、經濟、學術乃至政治等議題上所普遍被關注之最具代表性且富傳統歷史意義的活動之一。[150]
注釋[编辑]
^ 「客家」一詞在客語中包含定語(形容詞)用法,只有在特殊場合下,才會用以指代「客家人」。
^ 2.0 2.1 原居係指1898年7月1日租借新界之前,已在香港存在的村落的居民後代。
參考資料[编辑]
引用資料[编辑]
^ 1.0 1.1 《中国大陆客家人居的空间分布及群体特征》广西民族研究2007年第四期(总第90期)钟声宏、黄德权著
^ 論客家民系及其源流. 中國知網. [2021-10-06]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-17).
^ 試論僑批對客家文化的影響. 梅州市人民政府辦公室. 2012-05-10 [2021-10-06]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10). 客家是具有顯著特性的漢族民系。
^ 客家民系. 星島日報. 2018-08-04 [2020-09-11]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24). 統計資料顯示,全球約有8,000萬客家人。其中,約5,000萬人分布在中國的廣東、江西、福建、廣西、四川、海南等19個省區的180多個市縣,廣東省本地客家人數達2,500萬,佔廣東本地族群的1/3。此外,約600萬人分布在中國香港、澳門、台灣,約1,500萬人分布在印尼、馬來西亞、泰國、新加坡、越南、美國、秘魯、毛里求斯等80餘個國家和地區。
^ 上杭新聞網-「客家」這一稱呼的由來[1] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)县文体广新局:邱甫田
^ 歷史沿革. 興寧市人民政府. 2020-07-22 [2020-09-17]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-01). 宋代冊立戶籍,根據漢人入粵時間先後,分別編入主籍和客籍。廣府民系和福佬民系人粵在先,編為主籍,客家民系入粵在後,編入客籍,客家人由此而得名。
^ 土家族. 中央政府门户网站. 中华人民共和国国家民族事务委员会. 2015-07-24 [2019-05-28]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-26). 《咸丰县志》将土司后裔的“支庶之家”称为“土家”,而将当地汉族移民称为“客家”
^ 人口民族. 鳳凰縣人民政府. 2020-09-02 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-01). 所謂客家,又主要是指漢人而言的。土家意為本地人,客家則意為外來人,只有較多的漢人移居到土家地區以後才出現。
^ 客家名稱來源. 開封日報. 2014-09-11 [2020-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 蕭文評. 「客家」稱謂之始與永安社會,以清初屈大均《永安縣次志》為中心 (PDF). 嘉應學院學報( 哲學社會科學). 07-2011 [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-10). 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 11.0 11.1 客家民系遷徙與形成. 中央紀委監察部網站. 2015-10-27 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24). 客家先民是中原人,客家民系是在客家先民的遷徙運動中形成的。客家人在歷史上曾經歷五次遷徙運動,其中第一期是孕育期,第二、三期是形成期,第四、五期是向海內外播散期。客家人遷徙運動的原因,有王權變更、農民起義或少數民族入主中原等。
^ 陳麗華. 族群與國家: 六堆客家認同的形成(1683-1973). 台灣. 2015: 293-294頁.
^ 李輝; 潘悟雲; 文波; 楊寧寧; 金建中; 金力; 盧大儒. 客家人起源的遺傳學分析 (PDF). 《遺傳學報》. 2013-09-30, 2003 (09): 873–880 [2019-05-28]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2017-04-25).
^ 鄭連斌; 李詠蘭; 陸舜華; 包金萍; 王楊; 張曉瑞; 薛虹; 榮文國. 中國客家人體質特徵. SCIENTIA SINICA Vitae. 2013, 43 (3): 220–221 [2019-05-28].
^ 23魔方祖源資料總合. 23魔方生物科技有限公司. 2020-03-13 [2023-08-29]. (原始内容存档于2023-08-29).
^ Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation. 2009 Dec 11 [2023-08-29]. (原始内容存档于2023-10-10). 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 東晉南朝僑流人口的輸出與輪入. 中國人民大學清史研究所. 2009-03-21 [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-19).
^ 林牧之. 梁武帝的析州政策與國家統治 (PDF). 國立政治大學歷史學系研究所碩士論文. 07-2013 [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-04-14). 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 洛陽——客家人的根親文化聖地. 洛陽市人大常委會. [2021-01-22]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 第二屆根在河洛客家文化大會在洛陽市舉辦. 洛陽市人民政府. 2019-09-18 [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 客家概述. 2009-12-04 [2022-03-02]. (原始内容存档于2022-03-02). 中國發展門戶網
^ 洛陽-客家人的根親文化聖地. 2012-06-12 [2022-03-02]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10). 洛陽日報
^ 到洛陽尋找客家人的根. 2007-09-06 [2022-03-02]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07). 洛陽日報
^ 洛陽新地標!客家之源紀念館開館儀式舉行. 2021-04-16 [2022-03-02]. (原始内容存档于2022-04-16). 河南日報
^ 洛陽客家之源紀念館項目培土奠基. 2019-09-19 [2022-03-02]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10). 河南省人民政府辦公廳
^ 美麗江西的水文化. 人民網. 2018-11-23 [2020-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-03).
^ 客家四州是哪四州. 中國瑞金網. 2020-07-13 [2020-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 温, 昌衍. 《客家方言》. 中国广州: 华南理工大学出版社. 2016: 226. ISBN 7562322848.
^ 罗, 美珍; 邓, 晓华. 《客家方言》. 中国福建: 福建教育出版社. 1995: 216. ISBN 7533419405.
^ 30.0 30.1 陈, 晓锦. 《广西玉林市客家方言调查报告》. 中国北京: 中国社会中国出版社. 2004: 397. ISBN 7500446691.
^ 邢向東,付新軍、孫紅舉編《陝南羅灣客家話的音韻特點及其他客家話的異同》,陝西師範大學文學院,陝西西安,2013年2月
^ 曹志耘《浙江金華珊瑚客家話音系》,方言2004年第三期200-211頁,2004年8月第二版
^ 鐘山,《走向海洋的優秀民係—漫話港澳臺的客家人和客屬組織》,你好台灣客家鄉親網站,中央人民廣播電臺對臺灣廣播中心. [2009-02-12]. (原始内容存档于2013-10-05).
^ 羅, 惠儀. 走訪村落探索客家文化. 被引用的相關網址 (香港經濟日報). 2012-08-20 [2020-04-04]. (原始内容存档于2020-04-19). 根據 2010 年的統計數字,香港的客家人約有 200 萬,大埔、西貢及荃灣等地,仍有「客家村」
^ 周, 樹佳. 本地客家村分布解構. 香港商報. 2016-04-14 [2020-04-04]. (原始内容存档于2020-04-19).
^ 澳門客家人約占五分之一. 大紀元. 2006-05-28 [2020-08-31]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-09).
^ 客家庄分佈圖. [2017-11-25]. (原始内容存档于2012-06-24).
^ 客家人口分佈圖. [2011-01-22]. (原始内容存档于2011-06-23).
^ 廖, 經庭. 從比較探索客家--讀《東南亞客家的變貌:新加坡與馬來西亞》. 《全國新書資訊月刊》. 2012, 159 (3): 55–59 [2019-05-28]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07).
^ 論泰國客家華人的歷史. 中國評論通訊社. 2006-11-09 [2019-05-28]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07).
^ 马来西亚华语的历时考察 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)Proceedings of the 29th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-29).,2017年
^ 谢诗坚:客家人与客家话 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)東方Online,2016年9月28日
^ 馬來西亞客聯會全國屬會 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)馬來西亞客家公會聯合會,2020年
^ 44.0 44.1 馬來西亞客家社團調查:80年代受星國電視廣播影響,客語社群大多「華語化」 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)關鍵評論網媒體集團,2020年3月10日
^ 沙捞越客家人的移民、聚落形态与社团组织论析 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)八桂僑刊,2014年6月
^ 46.0 46.1 马来西亚砂拉越大埔与河婆客家话的混同关系 35-36頁 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)當代中國研究期刊,2016年10月
^ 訪印尼三口洋客屬公會/沙客聯與鄉親密切交流 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)華僑日報,2013年11月30日
^ “千庙之岛”邦加:印尼保留中华文化传统最多的岛屿 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)中國新聞網,2018年3月21日
^ 聽印尼作家談家族故事:為什麼一個印尼的島上,會有這麼多的客家人? (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)關鍵評論,2016年6月15日
^ 客家的定義-源流和分布. 文化協會. [2019-04-11]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07).
^ 曹, 逢甫. 台灣地區國民中小學本土語言教學現況之整合型研究總計劃期末報告 (PDF). 國家教育研究院. 12-2011 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2020-10-22). 自國民政府於 1949年遷台以後直到 1988年解嚴為止一直強力推行獨尊國語的政策並且取得一定的成績,但也由於強力推行的結果使得在地的本土語言:台灣閩南語、台灣客家語和台灣原住民族語受到 深淺不一的傷害而導致大量的語言使用人口的流失現象,其中又以原住民族語最為嚴重,尤其是在都市地區。 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 臺灣客家語常用詞辭典. [2010-09-05]. (原始内容存档于2010-09-01).
^ 洛陽——客家人的根親文化聖地. 洛陽市人大常委會. 2012 [2021-01-22]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24). 客家人對於自己的語言有著獨特的情感:「寧賣祖宗田,不忘祖宗言;寧賣祖宗坑,不忘祖宗聲。」是客家人穿越千年在精神上與故鄉、先祖聯繫的文化密碼。
^ 加強推行國語台省訂定實施計劃. 《聯合報》. 1971-07-09 (中文(臺灣)).
^ 歷史洪流下的公民 客家運動30年. 新浪新聞. 2018-09 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-01). 客家運動的首要成果,是客家權益法制化,客家事務進入官僚體系。例如2000年通過的《大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法》,規定大眾運輸工具加播閩南語、客語,算是客家語言在公共領域跨出的第一步。
^ 張雙慶、莊初升. 《香港新界方言》. 香港: 商務印書馆. 2003: 14 [2015-02-26]. ISBN 9620716825. (原始内容存档于2015-02-26) (中文).
^ 張振興. 中國語言地圖集第二版. 北京: 商務印書馆. 2012: 116–124 [2014-12-31]. ISBN 7100070546. (原始内容存档于2015-01-01) (中文).
^ 香港客家人. 中國評論通訊社. 2010-09-23 [2020-04-04]. (原始内容存档于2020-04-19). 目前香港的客家人約有200萬人
^ 莊初升、黃婷婷. 《19世紀香港新界的客家方言》. 廣州: 廣東人民出版社. 2014 [2015-02-26]. ISBN 9787218087085. (原始内容存档于2015-02-26) (中文).
^ 2011年按新市鎮及慣用語言劃分的五歲及以上人口. 香港特別行政區政府政府統計處(二零一一年人口普查辦事處). 2011 [2015-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2015-02-26) (中文).
^ 61.0 61.1 61.2 2001年、2006年及2011年五歲及以上人口能說選定語言/方言的比例. 香港特別行政區政府政府統計處(二零一一年人口普查辦事處). 2011 [2015-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2015-09-23) (中文).
^ 2011年按出生地點、慣用語言及使用其他語言/方言的能力劃分的五歲及以上人口. 香港特別行政區政府政府統計處(二零一一年人口普查辦事處). 2011 [2015-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2015-02-26) (中文).
^ 顧朋. 客家與近代中國革命之關係─以太平天國與辛亥革命為例 (PDF). 國立臺灣大學社會科學院國家發展研究所博士論文. 02-2015: 15頁 [2020-10-20]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-21). 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 庚子首義紀事(連載3)(7). 辛亥革命網. 2011-08-16 [2020-10-20]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24). 宋元以來客民的反抗史,就能更深層地瞭解他們頑強抗暴的家國精神。他們曾經譜寫出中國歷史上多次石破天驚的大事件。宋末抗元,明末抗清,太平天國起義,台灣甲午抗日,割讓新界的抗英,乃至辛亥革命。
^ 內憂不解,天國難興. 中共中央紀律檢查委員會. 2019-10-14 [2021-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2019-10-14).
^ 太平天國政權崩潰的歷史教訓. 淮安市漣水縣人民檢察院. 2017-12-06 [2021-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-19).
^ 太平天國運動. 中國政府網. 2005-06-24 [2021-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 太平天國失敗的原因及其歷史教訓. 中共浙江省紀律檢查委員會. 2011-01-27 [2021-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 客商八大王創富的傳奇. 中國經濟網. 2009-11-19 [2021-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 客商與近現代中國. 中國知網. [2021-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2022-03-21).
^ 客家商幫的形成演變及歷史影響. 中國知網. 2016 [2021-04-02]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-19).
^ 商印百年客商歷史的見證. 南方網. 2014-06-16 [2021-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 近代东南亚客商开拓史略述. 缅华网. 2018-07-26 [2023-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2022-10-28).
^ 全國客家日自111年起調整為1228還我母語運動日. 中華民國客家委員會. 2022-01-07.
^ 謝, 登旺. 客家文化產業活化芻議 (PDF). 通識研究集刊第八期. [2022-02-10]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2022-03-20).
^ 陳, 鈺婷. 客家政治與經濟導論 (PDF). [2022-02-10]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2022-03-09).
^ 許, 峻誠. 客家文化設計風格之認知研究 (PDF). 文化產業、戲劇與傳播多元建構的客家子計畫五成果報告. [2022-02-10]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2022-03-20).
^ 探訪中國最大方形客家圍屋:隱在深山人未識. 人民網. 2016-11-22 [2020-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-03).
^ 圍屋-塢堡的活化石. 京華時報. 2007-08-13 [2019-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-31).
^ 漢魏晉北朝中原大宅、塢堡與客家民居. 中國知網. [2021-10-05]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-17).
^ 吳鳳家. 南北朝時期豫州地方勢力與南北政權的關係. 國立臺灣大學歷史學研究所碩士論文. 06-2004 [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-14). 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 圍龍屋. 客家文化網. [2019-03-24]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-24).
^ 關西新圍. 人民日報海外版. [2019-03-24]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-24).
^ 鄭, 珊雲. 福建土樓. 中國文化研究院. [2019-03-24]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-27).
^ 《客家源流新論:誰是客家人》/陳支平第一版台北市:臺原民87頁146 承啟樓
^ 大萬世居. 文匯報. [2019-03-24]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-27).
^ 陳, 天權. 客家大型圍村曾大屋. 灼見名家. 2016-06-21 [2019-03-24]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-27).
^ 祠堂:客家文化的重要窗口. 中國社會科學網. 2017-07-28 [2020-10-09]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 客傢伙房. 國史館. 2018-11-01 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-09).
^ 走馬樓. 中國網. 2008-07-08 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2018-06-20). 大多倚山而築,錯落有致。形式有一字形、曲尺形、凹字形和回字形,其中凹字形、回字形走馬樓系由方形樓演變而成。這種樓以二層樓為多數,一層為臥室、倉庫。其有一個共同特點:在二樓的外部以木料架設一條外伸懸空的走廊。
^ 客家圓樓與五鳳樓. 中國評論新聞網. 2007-03-27 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-01).
^ 英德發現四十六座四點金客家圍樓. 南方日報. 2009-11-06 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 梅州中西合璧「聯芳樓」 見證華僑海外奮鬥史. 新浪全球新聞. 2013-07-16 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-03).
^ 謝, 乾桶. 客家敬字亭文化與運作 (PDF). 國立中央大學客家研究碩士在職專班 碩士論文. 06-2012 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-13). 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 甘坑夜太美!第二屆小涼帽燈籠節讓小鎮夜泛星光. 深圳新聞網. 2020-01-10 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 白鷺古村 千年客家第一村. 古建中國. 2017-11-28 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-01).
^ 江南宋城 客家搖籃. 中共中央紀律檢查委員會. 2016-06-08 [2021-10-06]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10).
^ 客家搖籃. 贛州市人民政府. 2016-10-31 [2021-10-05]. (原始内容存档于2022-01-04).
^ 千年遺韻宋城贛州. 中國江西網. 2020-06-12 [2021-10-05]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07).
^ 2012贛州旅游資源介紹. 贛州市人民政府. 2016-10-31 [2021-10-05]. (原始内容存档于2022-01-04).
^ 崇文重教是客家重要的文化特徵. 中國社會科學報. 2011-11-23 [2020-10-09]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-03).
^ 精神文明創建. 寶豐人民政府. 2020-05-28 [2021-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-19).
^ 福建龍岩客家家訓簡介. 中央紀委監察部. 2015-10-13 [2021-03-31]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07).
^ 客家人是華夏文明的守護者. 中央紀委監察部. 2020-10-20 [2021-04-02]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-19).
^ 探索敬字亭之變遷─以竹田鄉西勢村文筆亭為例 (PDF). [2022-02-28]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 敬惜字紙人人有責 (PDF). [2022-02-28]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 民俗风情-客家民俗. 梅州市人民政府. 2021-03-12 [2023-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2022-10-28).
^ 從宗祠看客家人的價值文化. 廣東省政協文化和文史資料委員會. 2021-03-31 [2022-02-10]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10).
^ 公私之間:祠堂的傳統與功能演化. 法制網. 2018-07-06 [2020-10-19]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 客家門匾中的傳承. 中共中央紀律檢查委員會. 2008-03-25 [2021-04-09]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07).
^ 傳承客家優良家風的文化載體. 廣東省情網. 2020-06-09 [2021-04-09]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 客家人的廟-新埔義民廟 (PDF). [2022-02-28]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 臺灣義民廟與義民爺 (PDF). [2022-02-28]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-05-07).
^ 客家義民形象與義民爺信仰的建構 (PDF). [2022-02-28]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-06-10).
^ 民俗記趣 (PDF). 清流月刊. [2022-03-01]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 客家民俗藝術與地域性設計探析. [2022-03-01]. (原始内容存档于2022-04-16). 中國知網
^ 客家傳統婚俗 (PDF). [2022-03-01]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-06-10).
^ 客家科學精神與佛教思想 (PDF). [2022-03-01]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 廣東漢樂. 廣東省人民政府. [2023-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2022-11-22).
^ 廣東漢樂蘊含華夏興衰. 中央人民廣播電台. 2013-01-21 [2023-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2022-11-22).
^ 廣東漢樂. 中國非物質文化遺產網. [2023-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2022-11-22).
^ 洪, 佩華. 客家流行音樂發展之研究 (PDF). 國立新竹教育大學音樂學系碩士班學位論文. 05-2016 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-13). 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^ 漢劇. 中國戲曲網. [2020-10-19]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-03).
^ 新時代廣東漢劇再起航!梅州發起五省漢劇申報世界「非遺」. 南方網. 2019-12-26 [2020-10-19]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 廣東漢劇. 廣東省博物館. 2016-06-06 [2020-10-19]. (原始内容存档于2020-10-19).
^ 「南國牡丹」——廣東漢劇. 大埔縣人民政府. 2013-04-18 [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 廣東漢劇. 廣東漢劇傳承研究院. [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-12).
^ 廣東漢劇. 戲劇網. 2008-03-06 [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-19).
^ 廣東漢劇簡介. 廣東漢劇傳承研究院. [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-12).
^ 廣東漢劇. 中國非物質文化遺產網. [2021-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-19).
^ 每一道客家菜,都有不為人知的故事來歷. 香港商報. 2017-06-20 [2019-04-11]. (原始内容存档于2019-04-11).
^ 客家飲食文化:古代中原飲食文化的活化石. 龍岩市永定區人民政府. 2018-06-12 [2020-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
^ 孫潤田-客家飲食文化發端於中原. 開封新聞網絡. 2014-07-18 [2020-10-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-10-12).
^ 客家傳統米食點心 (PDF). [2022-02-10]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 客家米食特色探究 (PDF). 普台高中. [2022-02-10]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 台灣客家美食文化 (PDF). [2022-02-10]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-03-09).
^ 三省聯手打造客家文化長廊. 新浪新聞網. 2007-09-04 [2020-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-01). 廣東惠州將聯合深圳、韶關、梅州、河源、江西贛州、福建龍岩等主要客家人聚居城市,共同打造粵閩贛「千里客家文化長廊」。
^ 客家大本營的城市. 福建武平網. 2016-05-23 [2020-08-31]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-01). 當今屬於客家大本營的城市是指福建省龍岩市、廣東省梅州市、惠州市、河源市、深圳市、韶關市和江西省贛州市,以上合共七個城市
^ 客家民系與客家人. 廣東省情網. 2018-11-12 [2021-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 客家旅遊聯盟聯席會議召開 建微信匯推客家旅遊. 鳳凰新聞網. 2016-06-18 [2020-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-03). 客家旅遊聯盟第一次聯席會議在廣東梅州召開。來自江西贛州、吉安,福建龍岩、三明,廣西賀州,廣東韶關、清遠、惠州、河源、梅州四省十市的旅遊部門代表、媒體記者等80多人參加會議。
^ 台灣客家人分布地區. 中國台灣網. 2008-03-25 [2021-04-08]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01).
^ 贛粵閩桂10市成立旅遊聯盟. 中共會昌縣委辦公室. 2015-10-16. 為進一步推進贛粵閩桂客家地區的區域旅遊合作,近日,我市與廣東梅州、河源、惠州、韶關、清遠,福建龍岩、三明,廣西賀州以及本省吉安共同組建客家旅遊聯盟 [失效連結]
^ 丘昌泰(國立臺北大學公共行政暨政策學系). 臺灣客家的過去與現在 (PDF). 臺北市終身學習網通訊(第57期) (國立臺北大學). 2012年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-09).
^ 消逝的「客家教會」:香港崇真會救恩堂之變遷 (PDF). 客家研究第十卷第二期. 2017-12 [2022-04-13]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-04-16).
^ 瑞士巴色傳道會出版客家話書籍之分析研究:以聖經新約使徒行傳為中心 (PDF). 客家委員會獎助客家學術研究計畫. 2013-11 [2022-04-13]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-05-07).
^ 陳麗華. 香港客家想像機制的建立: 1850-1950 年代的香港基督教巴色會 (PDF). 全球客家研究第3期. 2014-11 [2022-04-13]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-05-07).
^ 香港崇正總會的創立及其貢獻. 中國知網. [2021-10-06]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10).
^ 崇正考-兼論客家精神. 中國知網. [2021-10-06]. (原始内容存档于2022-05-07).
^ 開啓客家新天地. 赤溪鎮人民政府. 2007-12-29 [2021-10-06]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10).
^ 關於總會-總會歷史-世界客屬懇親大會. 世界客屬總會. 2015-10-16 [2016-05-07]. (原始内容存档于2016-05-19) (中文(臺灣)).
研究書目[编辑]
張正田,〈從1926年臺灣漢人籍貫調查資料看「臺灣客家傳統地域」〉,《客家研究》(桃園中壢:國立中央大學客家學院),3: 2,2009.12,頁165-210。
客家人基因:客家人的父系染色體、體質、母系、常染等基因資料. [2020-08-28]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-09).
成峰(暨南大學). 廣東漢族mtDNA遺傳多態性的研究. 暨南大學碩士學位論文. 2007年 [2021-04-21]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-21).
施添福(中央研究院臺灣史研究所兼任研究員). 中國歷史上本貫主義戶籍制度下的「客家」 (PDF). 全球客家研究,2013年11月第 1 期. 2006年 [2020-08-28]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-24).
施添褔(中央研究院臺灣史研究所兼任研究員). 客家稱謂的出現、蛻變與傳播 (PDF). 全球客家研究,2014年5月第 2 期. 2014年 [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-22).
張維安(國立交通大學). 全球客家研究期刊第3期 (PDF). 國立交通大學. 2014年.
許維德(國立陽明交通大學). 全球客家研究期刊第16期 (PDF). 國立陽明交通大學. 2021年.
簡宏逸 (國立臺灣師範大學). 歐德理與他的傳教士民族誌:客家研究的德意志起源 (PDF). 國立臺灣師範大學. 2016年.
李默(广东省社科院研究员). 客家來源與形成 (PDF). 广东省杜科院. 2006年.
劉春喜(廣東省博物館). 客家人的遷徙及其文化特徵的形成 (PDF). 廣西民族研究(第1期). 1998年.
宋鴻立(鄭州輕工業大學國際教育學院副教授). 客家移民路徑選擇與客家語言文化的形成 (PDF). 中州學刊(第11期). 2020年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-01).
譚元亨(武漢大學). 客家新探 (PDF). 華南理工大學出版社.
陳麗華(香港中文大學). 客家身份的建構 (PDF). 香港中文大學.
張容嘉(中央大學客家語文暨社會科學學系博士後研究員). 香港崇正總會與世界客屬想像 (PDF). 全球客家研究,2019年5月第 12 期. 2019年.
徐智俊(國立臺灣師範大學). 香港客家語言復振與客家文化復興 (PDF). 國立臺灣師範大學 華語文教學系 碩士論文. 2019年.
楊興忠. 客家論叢精選 (PDF). 海峽出版發行集團. 2014年.
吳英杰(廈門大學人類學系博士). 客家人的形成問題探究 (PDF). 客家文博. 2015年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-09).
胡希張(原梅州市委宣傳部部長). 客家源流研究的回顧 (PDF).
林正慧(國史館協修). 華南客家形塑歷程之探究 (PDF). 全球客家研究 第 1 期. 2013年 [2020-08-28]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-24).
林正慧(國史館協修). 閩粵?福客?清代臺灣漢人族群關係新探 —以屏東平原為起點 (PDF). 國史館學術集刊 第6期. [2020-08-28]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-24).
林正慧(國史館協修). 從客家族群之形塑看清代臺灣史志中之「客」—「客」之書寫與「客家」關係之探究 (PDF). 國史館學術集刊(第10期). [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-07).
郑维宽(廣西民族大學). 宋代以來客家移民開發嶺南西部邊疆的過程及其歷史意義 (PDF). 廣西地方志2013年 第5期. 2015年 [2020-08-28]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-22).
杨鹤书(中山大学教授). 惠州,让天下人最早知道有“客家”的地方. 惠州市客家文化经济促进会. 2012年 [2020-08-28]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-24).
蕭春豔(湖北經濟學院教授). 東江文化的源流探析 (PDF). [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-06-11).
黃信洋(國立交通大學客家文化學院博士後研究員). 圍堡、博物館與跨國家族: 論深圳市龍崗客家民俗博物館的客家文化特質 (PDF). 博物館與文化(第16期). 2018年 [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-05).
曾瑞媛(國立臺中教育大學語文教育學系博士). 客家童謠的文化特質 (PDF). 育達科大學報(第26期). 2011年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-05).
冷剑波(中山大学 中国语言文学系),曹树基(上海交通大学 历史系). 原鄉與南洋: 「客家」的他稱與自稱 (PDF). 《学术界》月刊 第 240 期. 2018年 [2020-08-28]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-26).
王甫昌(中央研究院社會學研究所研究員). 族群關係與客家認同 (PDF). 全球客家研究(第5期). 2015年 [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018-04-20).
安煥然(馬來西亞南方學院中文系系主任). 馬來西亞柔佛客家人的移殖及其族群認同探析 (PDF). 台灣東南亞學刊(第1期). 2009年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-05).
袁理(廈門大學人類學與民族學系). 澳門客家源流及其族群認同 (PDF). 黑龍江民族從刊. 2014年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-01).
吳中杰(高雄師範大學客家文化所副教授). 浙江西南部客家話的聚變和裂變 (PDF).
黃志繁(南昌大學歷史學系教授). 範式、概念與方法:中國大陸客家研究的學術歷程與理論反思 (PDF). 全球客家研究(第1期). 2013年 [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-12-01).
鐘肇政(中央研究院社會學研究所研究員). 台灣客家族群史總論 (PDF). 國立中央大學客家學院. [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-05).
楊國鑫(中央大學哲學研究所博士). 台灣的客家問題、客家運動與客家學 (PDF).
陳麗華(國立清華大學人文社會研究中心博士後研究員). 談泛臺灣客家認同──1860-1980 年代臺灣「客家」族群的塑造 (PDF). 臺灣大學歷史學報(第48期). 2011年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-09).
劉堉珊(國立暨南國際大學東南亞學系助理教授). 臺灣客家文化館舍的發展與脈絡分析 (PDF). 博物館與文化(第16期). 2018年.
施正鋒(東華大學民族發展暨社會工作學系教授). 王保鍵、邱榮舉:《台灣客家運動——〈客家基本法〉》 (PDF). 全球客家研究(第1期). 2013年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-03).
張世賢(台灣客家研究學會). 臺灣客家運動的起伏與隱憂 (PDF). [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-09).
杜國清. 台灣文學與客家文化 (PDF). [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-01).
彭文正(台灣大學新聞研究所副教授). 臺灣主要報紙客家意象研究 (PDF). [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-09-10).
陳俊安(國立中央大學客家社會文化研究所研究生). 日治時期日人對臺灣客家的社會印象之研究. 2011年 [2021-01-27]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-09).
河合洋尚(日本國立民族學博物館研究員). 日本客家研究的軌跡:從日本時代的臺灣調查到後現代主義視角 (PDF). 全球客家研究(第一期). 2013年 [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-01).
薛雲峰(國立臺灣大學社會科學院國家發展研究所). 臺灣客家史觀:以義民與 1895 乙未抗日戰爭為例 (PDF). 博士論文. 2009年 [2020-10-20]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-21).
徐輝琪(中國社科院近代史研究所科研處處長). 客家與辛亥革命 (PDF). [2020-10-20]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2019-03-27).
丘權政. 客家與近代中國. 中國華僑出版社.
孟憲實(中國人民大學國學院教授). 論魏晉時期塢壁的組織原則——民間社會的民主傳統個案 (PDF).
王偉建(東吳大學中國文學系博士). 兩宋人物兵學思想與軍事文學研究 (PDF).
中國魏晉南北朝政治史 (PDF).
二、客家源流 (PDF). 《福建图书馆学刊》: 21.
客家文化內容之概要 (PDF).
客家族群的分佈及遷移史 (PDF).
臺灣客家人尋蹤:「客家基因溯源與疾病關聯性分析:社會學與生物學的對話」田野紀要 (PDF). 全球客家研究(第9期). 2017年 [2021-06-25]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-05).
博物館展示與客家記憶:以臺灣客家文物館為例 (PDF). 博物館與文化(第16期). 2018年.
台灣客家族群的歷史 (PDF).
另見[编辑]
客家地區
客家文化
客家習俗
客家方言
客家基因族譜
台灣客家人
臺灣客家語
s:客家基本法
渡臺悲歌
福佬客
外部链接[编辑]
维基百科提供如下语言版本:客家语维基百科
维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源:客家民系
行政院客家委員會 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
世界客屬總會(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
世界客屬總商會(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
馬來西亞客家公會聯合會(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
香港客屬總會(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
第二十九屆世界客屬懇親大會(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
第三十一屆世界客屬懇親大會(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
客家族譜博物館(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
學術網站[编辑]
國立中央大學客家學院(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
國立陽明交通大學客家文化學院(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
國立聯合大學客家研究院(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
嘉应学院客家研究所
國立高雄師範大學客家文化研究所
台灣客家數位圖書館(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
查论编客家民系客家史宁化石壁 - 土客冲突 - 太平天国 - 公司共和國(蘭芳共和國) - 客家基因族谱客家文化客家话 - 客家山歌 - 梅州客家山歌劇 - 客家大戲 - 罗香林 - 客家八音 - 广东汉乐 - 汉剧 - 客家流行音乐 - 客家蓝衫 - 天穿日 - 六虎牌 - 渡台悲歌 - 客家习俗 - 客家人的生产生活用具 - 世界客家博覽會客家菜酿豆腐 - 梅菜扣肉 - 腌面与三及第汤 - 鹽焗雞 - 娘酒鸡 - 客家小炒 - 客家面 - 客家娘酒 - 擂茶 - 艾粄 - 发粄 - 味酵粄 - 萝卜粄 - 茶粄 - 簸箕粄 - 老鼠粉 - 粄條 - 閩西八大乾 - 薑絲大腸客家民居花萼楼 - 荣槐楼 - 棣华围 - 磐安围 - 土楼群(田螺坑、高北、洪坑、河坑)主要分布地区广东(梅州、河源、惠州、增城、韶关、陆河、深圳) - 福建(龙岩、三明) - 江西(赣州、銅鼓) - 湖南(攸縣、桂东、汝城、炎陵、茶陵、平江、瀏陽)- 廣西(賀州、贵港、北海、欽州、玉林、防城) - 海南 - 四川 - 重庆 - 陝西 - 浙江 - 香港 - 臺湾(桃园、新竹市、新竹县、苗栗縣、六堆(屏东縣、高雄)、台中、南投、花蓮、臺東、崙背、福佬客) - 越南 - 馬來西亞(怡保 - 吉隆坡 - 亚庇) - 印度尼西亞 - 东帝汶 - 新加坡
查论编汉族民系官话民系
山东人
江淮人
巴蜀人
閩海民系
福州民系
興化民系
闽南民系
惠安女
蟳埔女
潮汕人
海陸豐人
臺灣閩南人
泉州裔
漳州裔
潮州裔
福佬客
檳城閩南人
龙岩民系
闽北民系
雷州民系
海南民系
廣府民系
南番順人
四邑人
香港四邑人
圍頭人
水源话族群
客家民系
艾人
臺灣客家人
福佬客
香港客家人
水源话族群
吳越民系
沙上人
其他
平话人群
蜑家
香港蜑家人
福州疍民
九姓渔民
高山汉
屯堡人
蔡家人
臨高人
明鄉人
親緣族群
果敢人
華裔泰人
土生華人
峇峇娘惹
文登华人
柬埔寨福建人
塔兹人
華裔麥士蒂索人
久米人
山由族
山泽-高栏人
山泽人
常来人
艾族侬人
華嘉族(英语:Multiracial_people#Singapore_and_Malaysia)
菜族人
喇叭人
龍家人
平埔客
查论编广东族群漢族粤语分支注1
廣府
四邑
圍頭
高凉
勾漏
疍家
閩語分支
閩南
潮州
海陸豐
雷州(粤西)
客话分支
客家(粤东北)
水源(东江中上游)
(艾)(粤西)
外省移民
北方民系注3
其他民族
瑶族注4
壮族
畲族注2
其他注5
注1. 以古廣信即現廣西梧州為中心的原粵語民系,較少受後期各省移民影響,語言一致度遠高於珠三角,都接近現今的廣州話。注2. 畲族一般使用客家话,仅極少量畲族人使用畲族本民族语言“活聂”,潮州地区畲族则逐渐使用潮州话。注3. 在改革開放以後,从广东省以外移居到广东的漢族人群(操湘语、赣语、官话等广东不分布或几乎没有分布的方言,在与广东原居民交流中较多使用普通话),统称北方人,主要集中分布在珠三角地区。注4. 瑶族拥有自己的语言,粤北瑶族还兼通客家话等;粤西一带瑶族则通常将粤语视为母语,基本同化为汉文化。注5. 除广东漢族三大民系及瑶族、壮族外,广东还存有其他无法归入瑶族或壮族的族群。
查论编福建族群漢族閩語分支
福州民系
福州人
福州疍民
興化民系
闽南民系
龙岩民系(閩西)
闽北民系
客語分支
客家民系
吳語分支
吴越民系
贛語分支
江右民系(赣语:江右民系)
外省移民
北方民系注1
巴蜀民系
少数民族
畲族
回族
满族
蒙古族
注1. 在改革開放以後,从福建省以外移居到福建的漢族人群(操赣语、官话等福建不分布或几乎没有分布的方言,在与福建原居民交流中较多使用普通话),统称外江儂或北囝,主要集中分布在沿海地区。
查论编四川族群汉族
巴蜀人
客家漢族
藏族
康巴人
嘉绒人
白马人
安多人
蒙古族
摩梭人
四川蒙古人
其他
羌族
彝族
苗族
土家族
查论编重庆族群汉族
巴蜀人
土广东
老湖广
其他
土家族
苗族
查论编臺灣族群臺灣原住民族 · 台灣僑民憲法、基本法律、宣言及政策
《中華民國憲法增修條文》
《原住民族基本法》
《臺灣原住民族權利宣言》
原住民族(參見南岛民族)中央政府認定
阿美族(邦查)
排灣族
泰雅族
布農族
太魯閣族
魯凱族
卑南族
鄒族
賽德克族
賽夏族
達悟族
噶瑪蘭族
邵族
撒奇萊雅族
卡那卡那富族
拉阿魯哇族
地方政府認定
西拉雅族(台南市市定、花蓮縣富里鄉鄉定)
大武壠族(花蓮縣富里鄉鄉定)
馬卡道族(屏東縣縣定、花蓮縣富里鄉鄉定)
未受政府認定
歐佈諾伙族
德樂日卡族
古納達望族
巴布薩族(貓霧捒族)
巴賽族
洪雅族(和安雅族)
阿立昆族
羅亞族
凱達格蘭族
雷朗族
龜崙族
道卡斯族(平埔客)
巴宰族(巴則海族)
噶哈巫族
拍瀑拉族(巴布拉族)
斯卡羅族
虎尾壟族(費佛朗族)
搭加里揚人
瑯嶠人
放索人
宜蘭噶瑪蘭族
邦查人
因同化或種族滅絕而消失
箕模族
達谷布亞努族
哆囉美遠族
里腦族
猴猴族
小琉球人
漢族戰前閩海民系
臺灣福州人
臺灣興化人
臺灣閩南人
臺灣泉州人
臺灣漳州人
臺灣潮州人
福佬客
半山仔
客家族群
臺灣客家人
福佬客
半山仔
其他漢族
臺灣江浙人
臺灣廣府人
戰後
台灣外省人
外省後代
台灣大陳人
馬祖福州人
金門閩南人
烏坵興化人(莆仙人)
在台緬甸華人
其他民族其他民族移民
荷蘭人
西班牙人
大和族(灣生)
琉球族
朝鮮族
京族
菲律賓人
印尼人
泰族
在臺大陸少數民族
滿族
畲族
回族
蒙古族
藏族
擺夷族(傣族)
歸化族
維吾爾族
景颇族
哈尼族
傈僳族
佤族
其他雲南少數民族
新住民按國籍在臺外籍人士
越南人
越南配偶
馬來西亞人
菲律賓人
印度尼西亞人
泰國人
緬甸人
緬甸華人
日本人
灣生
韓國人
印度人
蒙古人
俄羅斯人
烏克蘭人
猶太人
阿拉伯人
美國人
英國人
法國人
巴西人
荷蘭人
西班牙人
烏拉圭人
其他外籍配偶
在臺港澳人士
香港人
澳門人
在臺中國大陸人士
中國大陸配偶
中國大陸學生
按族群
大和族
朝鮮族
琉球族
京族
蒙古族
滿族
回族
俄羅斯族
藏族
景頗族
維吾爾族
馬來族
爪哇族
相關條目
本島人
本省人
福爾摩沙人
臺灣人
台灣人口
僑生
海外臺灣人
西拉雅族原住民身分案
註:戰後移民是指1945年日本投降離台後,移往臺澎金馬之中華民國國民
查论编臺灣客家文化重點發展區桃園市
新屋區
77%
楊梅區
68%
平鎮區
59%
龍潭區
59%
中壢區
57%
觀音區
48%
大溪區
34%
大園區*
26%
新竹縣
橫山鄉
94%
北埔鄉
93%
關西鎮
92%
竹東鎮
90%
峨眉鄉
89%
新埔鎮
88%
芎林鄉
88%
寶山鄉
82%
湖口鄉
81%
新豐鄉
69%
竹北市
55%
新竹市
東 區
37%
香山區*
27%
苗栗縣
公館鄉
91%
頭屋鄉
89%
三灣鄉
88%
大湖鄉
88%
銅鑼鄉
87%
苗栗市
87%
南庄鄉
82%
三義鄉
81%
獅潭鄉
79%
卓蘭鎮
79%
頭份市
78%
造橋鄉
77%
西湖鄉
76%
泰安鄉
41%
竹南鎮
38%
通霄鎮
33%
苑裡鎮*
30%
後龍鎮*
29%
臺中市
東勢區
77%
石岡區
46%
新社區
45%
和平區
34%
豐原區*
27%
南投縣
國姓鄉
58%
水里鄉*
27%
雲林縣
崙背鄉
39%
高雄市
美濃區
87%
杉林區
51%
六龜區
44%
甲仙區*
28%
屏東縣
竹田鄉
71%
麟洛鄉
68%
內埔鄉
64%
新埤鄉
54%
萬巒鄉
49%
長治鄉
43%
高樹鄉
42%
佳冬鄉
41%
臺東縣
池上鄉
43%
關山鎮
41%
鹿野鄉
33%
花蓮縣
鳳林鎮
66%
富里鄉
50%
瑞穗鄉
42%
玉里鎮
39%
壽豐鄉
34%
吉安鄉
33%
花蓮市*
32%
光復鄉*
30%
註:
括號內為當地客家人口佔總人口比例。帶*者,為加上區間估計的誤差值後仍能達三分之一以上的鄉鎮。
中華民國客家基本法第6條規定:「行政院客家委員會對於客家人口達三分之一以上之鄉(鎮 · 市 · 區),應列為客家文化重點發展區,加強客家語言 · 文化與文化產業之傳承及發揚」。
客家委員會依據《105年度全國客家人口暨語言基礎資料調查研究》以中華民國106年2月24日客會綜字第1060002892號公布。
查论编海外華人
华人
華人地區
土生華人
中華民國僑民
中华人民共和国华侨
歸國華僑
海外藏人
海外香港人
海外台湾人
海外金門人
非洲北非
阿爾及利亞
埃及
利比亞
摩洛哥
西非
布基纳法索
維德角
迦納
马里
奈及利亞
塞內加爾
中非
喀麥隆
剛果共和國
剛果民主共和國
南非
安哥拉
波札那
賴索托
馬達加斯加
馬拉威
模里西斯
莫三比克
納米比亞
留尼旺[法]
塞席爾
南非
尚比亞
辛巴威
東非
衣索比亞(英语:Chinese people in Ethiopia)
肯亞
坦尚尼亞
烏干達
美洲加勒比
貝里斯(英语:Ethnic Chinese in Belize)
古巴
多明尼加(英语:Ethnic Chinese in the Dominican Republic)
蓋亞那
海地
牙買加
波多黎各[美]
蘇利南
千里達及托巴哥
北美
加拿大
香港人
臺灣人
藏人
英屬哥倫比亞(英语:Chinese Canadians in British Columbia)
溫哥華
多倫多(英语:Chinese Canadians in the Greater Toronto Area)
墨西哥
美國
三江人
香港人
臺灣人
藏人
中美
哥斯大黎加
洪都拉斯
尼加拉瓜
巴拿馬
南美
阿根廷
巴西
智利
厄瓜多
蓋亞那
巴拉圭
秘魯
蘇利南
烏拉圭
委內瑞拉
亞洲西亞
伊朗
以色列(英语:Chinese people in Israel)
土耳其
維吾爾人
阿聯酋
中亞
哈薩克
東干人
維吾爾人
阿拉木圖(俄语:Уйгурская община Алма-Аты)
吉爾吉斯
東干人
南亞
孟加拉国
印度
中印人
藏人
巴基斯坦
維吾爾人
斯里蘭卡
東南亞
汶萊
柬埔寨
福建人
東帝汶
印度尼西亞
峇峇娘惹
邦加-勿里洞(英语:Chinese in Bangka-Belitung Islands)
文登
寮國
馬來西亞
三江人
峇峇娘惹
緬甸
藏人
獨龍人
果敢人
勐稳人
潘泰人
峇峇娘惹
臺灣
菲律賓
常來人
新加坡
中國國民
三江人
峇峇娘惹
泰國
秦霍人
峇峇娘惹
臺灣人
越南
明鄉人
下方人
艾人
儂人
山由人
潮汕人(越南语:Người Tiều (Việt Nam))
臺灣人
胡志明
潘切(越南语:Người Hoa ở Phan Thiết)
東亞
日本
三江人
臺灣人
琉球
朝鮮半島
蒙古
歐洲北歐
丹麥
芬蘭
冰島
挪威
瑞典
西歐
比利時
法國
巴黎(英语:Chinese community in Paris)
德國
愛爾蘭
荷蘭
瑞士
藏人
英國
香港人
倫敦(英语:Chinese community in London)
南歐
希腊
義大利
葡萄牙
西班牙
東歐
保加利亞
捷克
波蘭
羅馬尼亞
俄羅斯
滿人
東干人
塔兹人
西伯利亞
塞爾維亞
烏克蘭(烏克蘭語:Китайці в Україні)
大洋洲
澳大利亞
香港人
臺灣人
斐濟
夏威夷[美]
新喀里多尼亚[法]
紐西蘭
帛琉
巴布亞紐幾內亞
薩摩亞
東加
萬那杜
相關條目組織、團體
唐人街
华人社团
华人黑社会
华人新村
中華民國僑務委員會
中華人民共和國國務院僑務辦公室
身份、稱謂
僑領
僑生
華工
華商
歷史、文化
中國移民史
殷人东渡美洲论
海外華人語言
參見:{{漢族民系}}、{{香港侨民}}、{{海外臺灣人}}、{{唐人街}}
查论编 香港人歷史
逃港
香港移民潮
香港回流潮
香港人口史
香港越南船民問題
嬰兒潮
香港非法移民
國籍或種族總述
香港人口
亞洲
華人
漢族
满族
日本人
朝鮮半島人
越南人
泰國人
菲律賓人
印尼人
馬來西亞人
南亞裔(英语:South Asians in Hong Kong)
印度人(英语:Indians in Hong Kong)
尼泊爾人
巴基斯坦人(英语:Pakistanis in Hong Kong)
其他
葡萄牙人
俄羅斯人
香港欧亚混血儿
歸化中華人民共和國之香港居民
英國人(英语:Britons in Hong Kong)
美國人(英语:Americans in Hong Kong)
加拿大人(英语:Canadians in Hong Kong)
澳洲人(英语:Australians in Hong Kong)
法國人(英语:French people in Hong Kong)
香港少數族裔
中印混血兒
猶太人
黑人
難民和尋求庇護者
海外
海外港人
分類
香港英國屬土公民
英國國民(海外)
香港裔英國人
香港裔澳洲人
香港裔加拿大人
香港裔美国人
在臺香港人
在沪香港人
稱呼
香港居民
本地人
新界原居民(新界五大氏族)
香港新移民
水上人
山东差
摩羅差
香港外籍家庭傭工
八十後
政策
歸鄉政策
香港入境權
抵壘政策
即捕即解政策
香港居留權
甄別政策
英國國籍法與香港
居英權計劃
一般就業政策
專業人士
企業家
輸入內地人才計劃
資本投資者入境計劃
優秀人才入境計劃
非本地畢業生留港/回港就業安排
輸入中國籍香港永久性居民第二代計劃
科技人才入境計劃
高端人才通行證計劃
港人避風港計劃
證件
香港出生登記證明書
香港回港證
香港身份證
英國屬土公民護照
香港身份證明書
香港簽證身份書
香港海員身份證
英國國民(海外)護照 (BN(O))
香港特區護照
入境身份陳述書
臨時身份證明書(行街紙)
港澳居民來往內地通行證(回鄉證)
前往港澳通行證(單程證)
港澳台居民居住證
影視文學作品
《我是香港人》
《四代香港人》
《香港人在廣州》
《香港人在北京》
《香港小人物誌》
入境事務處 · 香港出入境事務 · 家庭計劃指導會 · 香港人口普查
查论编广东专题总体
历史
政治
经济
珠三角
粤东西北
粤东
粤西
粵北
粤港澳大湾区
地理
城市
南岭
珠江三角洲
潮汕平原
珠江
东江
西江
北江
韩江
榕江
鉴江
雷州半岛
潮汕
上川岛
下川岛
教育
中山大学
华南理工大学
深圳大学
南方科技大學
暨南大学
华南农业大学
华南师范大学
南方医科大学
广东工业大学
广州中医药大学
历史文化
岭南文化
音乐
粤剧
广东省文物保护单位
广东全国重点文物保护单位
广东省历史文化街区
饮食
粤菜
粤式茶楼
粤式酒楼
广州菜
顺德菜
客家菜
潮州菜
广式月饼
民系
廣府人
围头
四邑
閩海人
閩南
潮汕
海陸豐
雷州
客家人
疍家人
語言
粤语
广州话
粵語方言
潮州话
海陸豐話
海丰话
陆丰话
雷州话
隆都話
山涯話
客家话
粤北土话
軍話
广东军话
景点
广州塔
世界之窗
白云山
丹霞山
罗浮山
西樵山
七星岩
鼎湖山
海陵岛
南澳岛
盘龙峡
湖光岩
开平碉楼
珠玑古巷
华侨城
东部华侨城
长隆旅游度假区
长隆海洋王国
分类
共享资源
查论编福建专题省会:福州市地理
闽江
九龙江
晋江
汀江
武夷山脉
戴云山
太姥山脉
东海
南海
台灣海峽
罗源湾
兴化湾
湄洲湾
泉州湾
厦门湾
三沙湾
福州平原
兴化平原
泉州平原
漳州平原
福建水库列表
历史
昙石山文化
古闽人
七闽
闽越人
閩越
南海国
威武军
闽国
殷国
清源军
泉州市舶提举司
亦思巴奚军
月港
明鄭
闽海关
厦门英租界
福州船政局
福州日租界
鼓浪屿公共租界
中华民国军政府闽都督府
闽南护法区
建国军政制置府
联军办事处
闽西革命根据地
福建省 (中华苏维埃共和国)
靖和浦革命根据地
安南永德革命根据地
闽赣省
中華共和國
闽东革命根据地
闽中游击区
闽北游击区
闽西游击区
福州治安維持會
福州市政委员会
战争
秦征百越
漢平東越之戰
孙吴五伐闽中
侯官之战
建安、汉兴、南平之乱
东冶五县之乱
随春之乱
会稽南部山民起义
陈平闽中之战
隋平江南之战
王国庆之乱
蠻獠嘯亂
黄巢南下福州之战
泉州围城战 (885年—886年)
福州围城战
陈本起义
泉州之战 (944年)
泉州之战 (946年)
林居裔起义
建州之战
泉州围城战 (1277年)
亦思巴奚兵乱
明平闽广之战
明朝浙閩民變
崇禎明荷海戰
明清战争
博洛平福建之战
同安之屠
厦门战役 (1660年)
三藩之乱
清平耿精忠之战
郑经西征
厦门战役 (鸦片战争)
福建小刀会起义
福建红钱会起义
太平军入闽之战
馬江之役
漳州战役 (1932年)
閩變
松毛岭战役
廈門戰鬥 (抗日戰爭)
福州战役 (1941年)
福州战役 (1944年)
福州戰役 (1949年)
厦门战役 (1949年)
帝王
无诸
郢
丑
余善
居股
王審知
王延翰
王鏻
王昶
王曦
王延政
朱文进
卓儼明
留從效
林居裔
赵昰
黄广德
陳吊眼
邱细春
李大
邓茂七
朱聿键
朱以海
耿繼茂
耿精忠
鄭成功
鄭經
林万青
李世贤
族群
閩民系
福州民系
福州人
闽南民系
龙岩民系
闽北民系
興化民系
客家民系
福州疍民
畲族
回族
满族
蒙古族
高山族
语言
闽语
沿海闽语
閩東語
侯官片
福宁片
闽南语
泉漳片
大田片
浙南闽语
莆仙語
沿山闽语
闽北语
闽中语
邵将语
客家话
汀州客语
漳潮客語
畲话
贛語
吴语
官话
南平话
长乐旗下话
已消亡
闽越语
原始闽语
文化
閩都文化
閩南文化
闽剧
歌仔
歌仔戲
福建芗剧
梨园戏
高甲戏
茶亭十番
南音
大厝
閩東封火牆
围龙屋
拗九節
工夫茶
三条簪
惠安女
蟳埔女
高校
福州大学
福建师范大学
福建农林大学
福建医科大学
福建中医药大学
福建理工大学
厦门大学
集美大学
华侨大学
闽南师范大学
饮食
福州菜
客家菜
佛跳墙
荔枝肉
福州魚丸
扁肉燕
鼎边糊
胡椒餅
光饼
刈包
板麵
线面
五香滷肉
蚵仔煎
潤餅卷
薑母鴨
土笋冻
雞卷
桔红糕
貢糖
沙茶面
肉骨茶
客家酿豆腐
客家小炒
閩西八大乾
沙县小吃
景点世界遗产
武夷山
福建土楼
中國丹霞(泰宁世界地质公园)
鼓浪屿:国际历史社区
泉州:宋元中国的世界海洋商贸中心
清源山石造像
泉州开元寺
清净寺
灵山伊斯兰教圣墓
泉州天后宫
泉州府文庙
法石真武庙
德济门遗址
泉州市舶司遗址
南外宗正司遗址
九日山
洛陽橋
安平桥
草庵
六胜塔
万寿塔
鼓山
三坊七巷
鎮海樓
福州文廟
福州开元寺
忠懿閩王祠
柔远驿
上下杭
羅星塔
海坛岛
湄洲岛
广化寺
南山寺
東山島
冠豸山
玉华洞
大嵛山岛
太姥山
东冲半岛
白水洋
九龙漈景区
长汀革命旧址
武夷山列宁公园特产
茉莉花茶
铁观音
武夷岩茶(大红袍)
政和白茶
寿山石
脱胎漆器
德化白瓷
片仔癀
河田鸡
建盏
经济
闽江口金三角
海峡西岸经济区
中国(福建)自由贸易试验区
平潭综合实验区
闽南金三角
交通陆运
福州地铁
厦门地铁
武夷有軌電車
福廈客運專線
温福铁路
厦深铁路
福厦铁路
昌福铁路
龙厦铁路
南龙铁路
赣瑞龙铁路
福平铁路
兴泉铁路
衢宁铁路
建化铁路
清冠铁路
鹰厦铁路
福建高速公路
海运
福州港
马尾港
莆田港
泉州港
厦门港
三都澳
空运
福州长乐国际机场
厦门高崎国际机场
泉州晋江国际机场
连城冠豸山机场
三明沙县机场
武夷山机场
分类
共享资源
查论编江西专题南昌市(省会)总体
历史
建置沿革
政治
经济
地理
城市
幕阜山
九嶺山
罗霄山脉
武夷山脉
赣江
鄱阳湖
鄱阳湖平原
长江
秀水河
教育
江西师范大学
江西财经大学
江西农业大学
南昌大学
华东交通大学
南昌航空大学
文化
赣菜
贛劇
采茶戏
建筑(赣派建筑、围屋、江南民居等)
宗教
民系
江右民系
客家民系
吴越民系
江淮民系
闽南民系
语言
贛語 (南昌话、宜春话)
客家话
官话(江淮官话、西南官话)
吴语
徽语
闽南语(赣东北闽南语)
旅游景点
东林寺
庐山
柘林水库
分类
共享资源
查论编四川专题成都市 (省会)总体
政治
经济
教育
历史国家
巴国
古蜀
成家
蜀汉
成汉
譙蜀
前蜀
后蜀
李蜀
明夏
大西
事件
四川抗蒙战争 (抗蒙山城)
湖广填四川
保路运动
大后方时期
地理
城市
四川盆地
成都平原
地区 (川西
川东
川北
川南)
江河 (川江
岷江
嘉陵江
沱江
雅砻江)
山脉 (大巴山
龙门山
邛崃山
横断山脉 )
文化
川剧
川主
川菜
川酒
川茶
川盐
蜀锦
蜀绣
清音
音乐
建筑(宋元建筑)
园林
人口
四川人
土广东
老湖广
藏族
羌族
彝族
语言
四川话 (通用语,含成渝、岷江、仁富、雅棉四片区)
蜀語 (中上古)
土广东话
老湖广话
四川普通话
康方言
嘉绒语
羌语支
诺苏语
旅游景点
九寨沟
黄龙
峨眉山
乐山大佛
青城山
都江堰
四川大熊猫栖息地
贡嘎山
三星堆 和 金沙遗址
稻城亚丁
分类 共享资源
参见:大四川 和 重庆市
规范控制
BNF: cb12479603f (data)
J9U: 987007548226105171
LCCN: sh85058385
NDL: 00564742
NKC: ph276817
取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=客家民系&oldid=81800895”
分类:福建国家级非物质文化遗产江西国家级非物质文化遗产四川族群重庆族群臺灣客家文化重點發展區客家漢族民系福建族群广东族群台灣族群隐藏分类:引文格式1错误:日期自2024年3月带有失效链接的条目自2020年4月维基百科来源清理含有英語的條目含有客家話的條目维基共享资源分类链接由本地定义包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目包含J9U标识符的维基百科条目包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目包含NDL标识符的维基百科条目包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目
本页面最后修订于2024年3月7日 (星期四) 02:24。
本站的全部文字在知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 4.0协议之条款下提供,附加条款亦可能应用。(请参阅使用条款)
Wikipedia®和维基百科标志是维基媒体基金会的注册商标;维基™是维基媒体基金会的商标。
维基媒体基金会是按美国国內稅收法501(c)(3)登记的非营利慈善机构。
隐私政策
关于维基百科
免责声明
行为准则
开发者
统计
Cookie声明
手机版视图
开关有限宽度模式
Hakka language | Hakka Dialect, Chinese Dialects & Migration | Britannica
Search Britannica
Click here to search
Search Britannica
Click here to search
Login
Subscribe
Subscribe
Home
Games & Quizzes
History & Society
Science & Tech
Biographies
Animals & Nature
Geography & Travel
Arts & Culture
Money
Videos
On This Day
One Good Fact
Dictionary
New Articles
History & Society
Lifestyles & Social Issues
Philosophy & Religion
Politics, Law & Government
World History
Science & Tech
Health & Medicine
Science
Technology
Biographies
Browse Biographies
Animals & Nature
Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
Environment
Fossils & Geologic Time
Mammals
Plants
Geography & Travel
Geography & Travel
Arts & Culture
Entertainment & Pop Culture
Literature
Sports & Recreation
Visual Arts
Companions
Demystified
Image Galleries
Infographics
Lists
Podcasts
Spotlights
Summaries
The Forum
Top Questions
#WTFact
100 Women
Britannica Kids
Saving Earth
Space Next 50
Student Center
Home
Games & Quizzes
History & Society
Science & Tech
Biographies
Animals & Nature
Geography & Travel
Arts & Culture
Money
Videos
Hakka language
Table of Contents
Hakka language
Table of Contents
Introduction
References & Edit History
Related Topics
Quizzes
Word Nerd Quiz
Languages & Alphabets
Read Next
7 Everyday English Idioms and Where They Come From
The World’s 5 Most Commonly Used Writing Systems
Why Do Languages Die?
Discover
9 Things You Might Not Know About Adolf Hitler
Ten Days That Vanished: The Switch to the Gregorian Calendar
9 of the World’s Deadliest Spiders
Leap Day, February 29
What Did Cleopatra Look Like?
12 Greek Gods and Goddesses
8 Animals That Suck (Blood)
Home
Geography & Travel
Languages
Geography & Travel
Hakka language
Chinese language
Actions
Cite
verifiedCite
While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies.
Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.
Select Citation Style
MLA
APA
Chicago Manual of Style
Copy Citation
Share
Share
Share to social media
URL
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hakka-language
Give Feedback
External Websites
Feedback
Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login).
Feedback Type
Select a type (Required)
Factual Correction
Spelling/Grammar Correction
Link Correction
Additional Information
Other
Your Feedback
Submit Feedback
Thank you for your feedback
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.
External Websites
Omniglot - Hakka Language
Cite
verifiedCite
While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies.
Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.
Select Citation Style
MLA
APA
Chicago Manual of Style
Copy Citation
Share
Share
Share to social media
URL
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hakka-language
Feedback
External Websites
Feedback
Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login).
Feedback Type
Select a type (Required)
Factual Correction
Spelling/Grammar Correction
Link Correction
Additional Information
Other
Your Feedback
Submit Feedback
Thank you for your feedback
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.
External Websites
Omniglot - Hakka Language
Also known as: Hokchia language, Kejia language
Written and fact-checked by
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Article History
Table of Contents
Hakka language, Chinese language spoken by considerably fewer than the estimated 80 million Hakka people living mainly in eastern and northern Guangdong province but also in Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hunan, and Sichuan provinces. Hakka is also spoken by perhaps 7 million immigrants in widely scattered areas, notably Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The best-known dialect is the Hakka of Mei county (now in Meizhou), in Guangdong, which has the same initial and final consonants and the same syllabic nasal sounds (nasals that function as vowels) as standard Cantonese but has a vowel system resembling that of Modern Standard Chinese. Hakka, like Cantonese, has six tones to distinguish meaning between words or word elements with the same series of consonants and vowels. Hakka also has many similarities with the Gan language, and, the two languages are sometimes classified as a single subgroup, Gan-Hakka languages. Both have borrowed many words from Cantonese.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Kathleen Kuiper.
Hakka People: An Intriguing Ethnicity Worth DiscoveringSkip to content
Son Of ChinaHomeHistory Of China
Menu Toggle
chinese dynasties timeline
Menu Toggle
Shang Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
Spring And Autumn Period
Warring States Period
Qin Dynasty
Han Dynasty
Three Kingdoms
Sui Dynasty
Tang dynasty
Song Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
emperor of china
Menu Toggle
Yellow Emperor
Emperor Shennong
Qin Shihuang
Liu Bang
Han Wudi
Yang Jian
Li Yuan
Li Shimin
Wu Zetian
Zhao Kuangyin
Zhu Yuanzhang
Kangxi Emperor
Emperor Qianlong
Puyi
4 Beauties Of China
Silk Road
Maritime Silk Road
Taiping RebellionTraditions Of China
Menu Toggle
Lunar Calendar
Chinese Festivals
Menu Toggle
Chinese New Year
lichun
Lantern Festival
Qingming Festival
New Year
Menu Toggle
Symbols Of Chinese New Year
Menu Toggle
Red Envelope
Chinese Gourd
chinese fish symbol
Tong Qian
Yuanbao
Chinese Lanterns
Chinese Knot
Paper Cutting
Lion Dance
Dragon Dance
Fireworks
Fai Chun
12 Chinese Zodiac
Sexagenary Cycle
24 solar terms
temple fair
Dragon Boat Festival
Qixi Festival
Hungry Ghost Festival
Mid Autumn Festival
Chongyang Festival
Laba Festival
Dongzhi Festival
Chuxi
Religions In China
Menu Toggle
Chinese Folk Religion
Daoism
Buddhism
Confucianism Religion
Chinese Symbols
Menu Toggle
Stone Lions
Oracle Bones
Chinese Hanfu
Mahjong
Gongfu
Go Board Game
5 Elements
Seal Carving
Sexagenary Cycle
Shadow Puppet Play
Tile-Based Games
Chinese Mythology
Chinese Medicine
Menu Toggle
Tai Chi
Acupuncture
Qigong
Moxibustion
Gua Sha
Chinese Cupping
Tui Na
Chinese Instruments
Menu Toggle
Dizi
Guqin
Pipa
Guzheng
Bianzhong
Bolang gu
Suona
Chinese Philosophers
Menu Toggle
Confucius
Lao Zi
Xun Kuang
Mozi
Han Feizi
Zhuangzi
Mencius
Sun Tzu
Zhang Heng
Zhuge Liang
Xuanzang
hundred schools of thought
Menu Toggle
Mohism
Legalism
Chinese Inventions
Menu Toggle
Silk
Seismograph
Cloisonné
Chess Game
Woodblock printing
Chinese Calligraphy
Chinese Characters
Chinese Painting
Matches
Compasses
Chinese Embroidery
Papermaking
Brush Pen
Porcelain
Gun powder
Paper Money
Chinese Civilization
Chinese Dance
Lucky Numbers
Menu Toggle
1314 And 520
666
888
Feng Shui
Ba-Ziabout china
Menu Toggle
Chinese Animals
China Province
Chinese Language
Chinese Ethnic Groups
China Lake
China Mountain
Chinese cities
Chinese islands
Chinese rivers
Taste Of China
Menu Toggle
8 Major Cuisine
Tofu
Century Egg
Mooncakes
Chinese Noodles
Chinese Fried Rice
Dumplings
Chinese Wonton
Chinese Zongzi
Chinese New Year Cake
Chinese Ham
Youtiao
Chinese Sausage
Soy Milk
Bao Buns
Tanghulu
Yuan Xiao
Rou Jia Mo
Chinese Tea egg
Jianbing
Spring Rolls
Chinese Congee
Chinese Hot Pot
Chinese WineShopAbout UsSon Of China
Main Menu
About UsCartCheckoutHomeMy accountPortfoliopost listPosts pagePrivacy PolicyShopShopWP CollectionsShopWP ProductsSON OF CHINAHakka People: An Intriguing Ethnicity Worth Discovering3 Comments
/ By yelang
/ March 26, 20221
sharesShareTweet PinThe Hakka, who are also referred to as Hakka Chinese or the Hakka Han, is a subgroup of the Han Chinese. They have a reputation as the ‘Jews of China’ because they were largely isolated and developed their foods, customs, and language, as well as going through multiple discrimination events and being forced to migrate to different regions repeatedly throughout their history.They are an interesting group of people, yet not much is known about them or their history. In this article, we look at some facts about them and why they have a separate identity from other Han groups in China, as well as their relations with other Chinese ethnicities.Contents hide1
Who are the Hakka Chinese?2
Hakka history3
The origin of the Hakka4
The unique cultural characteristics of the Hakka people5
What is the Hakka language?6
Hakka food6.1
Unique cooking techniques used by Hakka people7
ConclusionWho are the Hakka Chinese?The Hakka Chinese are a subgroup of the Han Chinese whose Chinese characters translate to ‘guest families’, and their ancestral homelands are mainly in the provincial regions of the island of Taiwan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Hunan, Hainan, Zhejiang, Fujian, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Jiangxi.They are unique from other Han Chinese subgroups because they are not named after geographical places, such as cities, counties, or provinces within China. In terms of modern-day Hakka people, they speak the Hakka language, and you can identify them through different degrees of Hakka ancestry or full ancestry.Hakka historyIt is generally accepted that the Hakka origins are in the northern Chinese provinces, specifically Hubei and Henan. There have been genetic studies carried out on Hakka people, and results have shown they are descendants of the Northern Han Chinese people. Their settlement in southern China was due to migrations, and from there they spread out to the rest of the world.They are unique due to their global spread – they are among the most prominent Chinese diaspora communities, numbering between 80 and 120 million people. They have extensive influence on the history of modern China as well as overseas Chinese histories, such as producing numerous military officials and government leaders. In 1984, for instance, Hakka people comprised more than 50% of the Standing Committee of the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) Politburo.Hakka people’s migration from the north to the south of China happened during a time when earlier subgroups of Han Chinese already formed distinct languages and cultural identities from them. This is similar to what happened with the Chuanqing and Tunbao people, who are also Han Chinese subgroups that migrated to Southwest China from Eastern or Central China, and maintained unique ancestral customs that made them different from other Chinese people.The origin of the HakkaThere was no specific group of people known as the Hakka – instead, it was a term generally used to refer to migrants. Their origins are unknown, but there are various theories about it coming from historians, linguists, and anthropologists:Their language has traits of the proto-Hmong-Mien language and Old ChineseIn terms of genetics, they are mainly descended from a mix of local non-Han Hmong-Mien ethnic groups like the Yao, She, and Miao people and Ancient Han Chinese.They are Han Chinese who originate from the Central plains in China (these are present-day Henan and Shanxi provinces)The majority of Hakka people are southern Han Chinese mixed with some Northern peopleHakka people are Han Chinese people from the Central Plains, mixed with some portions of people from the southSome of these theories are controversial today, with scholars only accepting that the modern Hakka language shows traits of proto-Hmong-Mien and Old Chinese languages, as well as the genetic makeup of Hakka people being the hybrid of non-Han Hmong-Mien people and Ancient Han Chinese.The homeland of the current Hakka people is believed to be in Northern China, and they began migrating to the south several times since the Qin dynasty ruled (between 221 and 206 BC). This was due to invasions, upheavals, and social unrest that forced them to migrate. Other migrations happened at the end of the Tang Dynasty and the Northern Song dynasty in the 1120s.The 1120s migration occurred when the Jurchen people, a group of nomads from the north, captured Bianliang (the capital of the Northern Song dynasty) during the Jin-Song wars.The Hakka migration routes are unclear after this, but history records that they happened during the 14th Century again after the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty. In the 16th Century, Hakka people migrated again to hilly areas for lead and zinc mining, as well as the coastal regions to farm cash crops in response to an economic boom. However, many of their ventures failed due to an economic downturn, forcing many of them to begin pillaging.They were forced to evacuate the coastal plains during the reign of the Qing dynasty’s Kangxi Emperor (between 1661 and 1722) due to an imperial edict, and this lasted almost a decade. This was because the remaining members of the Ming court fled to Taiwan, and posed a danger to the Kangxi Emperor. After the threat was gone, the Emperor allowed the Hakka to resettle into the coastal regions by providing them with money, as well as registering newcomers as ‘Guest Households’.During the 1600s when it was illegal to leave China, many Hakka people also emigrated to Taiwan from the southern China coast as they were escaping poor soil, oppression, and overpopulation – especially those living in the rugged hilly regions of northeast Guangdong.Since they were outnumbered, they formed tight-knit communities, especially in two areas – the southern Taiwanese areas of Pingtung County and Kaohsiung County, and the northwest areas of Miaoli county, Hsinchu county, and Taoyuan City.The unique cultural characteristics of the Hakka peoplehakka tulouIn many ways, the Hakka cultural identity is not as different from their Han subgroup relatives, but distinct differences still exist. These include:Their intense devotion to their community, clan, and family. This is due to their unfortunate history of continually being ostracized and outnumbered by other groups they encountered.Their business acumen and frugality, are due to their forced migrations. Settling in stubborn land and harsh conditions forced them to develop strong business ideas, which led to a reputation of dealing with money issues.Unlike most women of the time, Hakka women’s feet were unbound. This was because their help was essential to fighting for food in the fields, and they needed to escape as quickly as possible in case of attacks.They emphasized the importance of education due to being discriminated against and shut out of ‘flatland’ economic activities. This also led to their prominence in imperial circles, as this protected them from harassment from other people. They also set aside money and community resources to educate the brightest and most promising members of their community, usually male, although basic literacy for both men and women was common.What is the Hakka language?The Hakka language is a variant of the Sinitic (Chinese) languages and spoken by Hakka people in Taiwan, mainland China, and diaspora communities in Southeast Asia, East Asia, and around the world.Since its usage is in scattered regions and is limited to where populations of Hakka people live, it has developed numerous dialects depending on where the speakers are based. These varieties include those from Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Fujian, Hainan, and Guangxi.Hakka is entirely distinct from other Sinitic languages and is not mutually intelligible with them – including Mandarin, Yue, Southern Min, and Wu. Its closest relation is with Gan, and linguists sometimes group Gan and Hakka as different varieties of the same language.Taiwan is a major center for the study of the Hakka language today, although there are differences between the dialects of Mainland China and Taiwanese Hakka. According to the Mainland Chinese Government, they consider the Moiyen (Meixian) dialect that is based in northeast Guangdong as the ‘standard’ Hakka dialect.As a language, Hakka is more conservative than other Sinitic languages, with some of its features being closer to Middle Chinese. It has several archaic features that disappeared from modern Mandarin, such as the addition of final consonants -k, -t, and -p, similar to the Cantonese language and other southern China languages. The language also has influences from other languages due to Hakka migrations, with common vocabulary present in She, Min, and Hakka languages.Some Hakka dialects are not mutually intelligible, although they belong to the same language group. The tones also vary, with most Hakka dialects having 6 tones. Some dialects also lack checked tones, like the western Fujian dialect Changting. Other dialects retain earlier tonal systems, such as Lufeng and Haifeng in southeast Guangdong province.In Taiwan, there are two Hakka variants: Hailu, which is based in Lufeng and Haifeng counties, and Sixian which originates in Jiaying Prefecture. In general, the Hakka dialects are agreed as:TongguYuguiNing-LongTingzhouYuebei (based in Northern Guangdong)HuizhouYuezhong (based in Central Guangdong)Yue-Tai (comprised of Meizhou, Raoping, Meixian, and Wuhua)Hakka foodhakka cuisineIn terms of ingredients, Hakka foods use similar ingredients to those in the Han-majority areas, which is proof of the strong ties to Han culture. However, there are unique points in flavoring methods and cooking techniques, making their food a testament to their survival skills in harsh areas and adaptation to environmental changes.The unique traits of Hakka cuisine worth noting are:Emphasis on mountain delicacies instead of seafood. For most of their history, Hakka people lived in mountainous regions, so it was more natural to consume mountain delicacies instead of fish and seafood.There is little regard for food presentation and instead focuses on the ingredients. Most Hakka dishes do not consider the food’s presentation, which shows their practical nature and shunning of showmanship.Instead of adding flavorings, their food emphasizes the original taste. The dishes are uncomplicated, which leads some people to believe this is how they showed individual taste. However, many researchers believe that the lack of flavors was a result of Hakka people living in isolated mountainous areas, so they were away from the cuisine influences of people living near the sea.Their dishes are high in protein and calorie content, as they needed to keep up their physical strength during their migration periods. This meant that the dishes retained their original taste, but were quite salty to add flavor.Rice cakes are made from glutinous rice instead of the japonica or indica rice of mainland China. This resulted in very filling foods that gave a sense of fullness, and these cakes were stuffed with meat, shallots, and dried radish in large portions.Tea culture is dominant, especially pestle tea and green tea.Unique cooking techniques used by Hakka peopleNiang – this translates to ‘stuffing’ in English. As their food needed to be dense and filling, they created the stuffing of vegetables and pork into alternative food materials. Some of their most famous stuffed dishes include stuffed tofu and stuffed bitter gourd.Ban – This means ‘mixing with rice’, and is a cooking technique of their staple meals, which they refer to as ‘Ban’. The dish is made from tapioca flour, glutinous rice powder, or rice flour, and mixed with vegetables to create Ban food. There are more than 200 varieties of Ban food, with the most common types including stuffed ban, fried Chinese bulbous onion ban, and wormwood ban.Dry – During the migration of the Hakka people, their vegetables and meat tended to rot, so they preserved them by drying them under sunlight. They have eight famous dry foods in their cuisine – dry bamboo shoots, dry meat, dry sweet potato, dry pig gall, dry carrot, dry bean curd, dry field mouse, and dry vegetables.Pickling – Hakka foods emphasize pickled dishes, as they are needed to promote preservation during travel. This also leads to their saltier taste, compared to other cuisines in the country. Some classic ingredients originated from this technique, such as sour pickled cabbage, soy-preserved radish, sour bacon, soybean paste, and fermented mustard.Additionally, they use other techniques such as braising, roasting, and stewing, which retain the nutritional value of their food.ConclusionThe Hakka people have a difficult history due to oppression and frequent migrations, but these events led them to what they are today – an innovative culture that makes them distinct from their Han Chinese cousins and other Chinese people.Post navigation← Previous PostNext Post →3 thoughts on “Hakka People: An Intriguing Ethnicity Worth Discovering”Paul YapApril 16, 2023 at 11:22 pmI am a Moyen Hak. I was born in Medan, came to the USA for college, then decided to remain in the USA due to oppressions in my country of birth. My Dad was born in Singkawang, my Mom was born in Muntok, Bangka. At home, we spoke Hak Fa. Among friends, I spoke Hokkien.Replyyelang April 17, 2023 at 1:50 amancient chinese languageReplyPingback: MYTHOLOGIES OF THE HAKKA TRIBE – World MythologyLeave a Comment Cancel ReplyYour email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *Type here..Name*Email*Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.
Search for:
Search
about chinaChina LakeChina MountainChina ProvinceChina TravelChinese AnimalsChinese citiesChinese clothingChinese craftChinese cultureChinese customsChinese EtiquetteChinese festivalsChinese FoodChinese medicineChinese Mythologychinese philosophyChinese riversChinese SportsChinese SymbolsHistory Of ChinaTaste Of ChinaTraditions Of ChinaRecent PostsJing County oil-paper umbrellaJiu Niang Yuan Zi: Glutinous Rice Balls In Fermented Rice WineThe Tradition of Carrying the Well Maiden in ZhoushanJing Shen: Chinese God of Well(Well Deity)Shu Hai In Ancient Chinese LegendsCopyright © 2024 Son Of China | Powered by Astra WordPress Theme1
shares
Scroll to To
Hakka culture - Wikipedia
Jump to content
Main menu
Main menu
move to sidebar
hide
Navigation
Main pageContentsCurrent eventsRandom articleAbout WikipediaContact usDonate
Contribute
HelpLearn to editCommunity portalRecent changesUpload file
Languages
Language links are at the top of the page.
Search
Search
Create account
Log in
Personal tools
Create account Log in
Pages for logged out editors learn more
ContributionsTalk
Contents
move to sidebar
hide
(Top)
1Language
2Architecture
Toggle Architecture subsection
2.1Hakka walled village
2.2Hakka earthen building
2.3Horn House
3Arts
Toggle Arts subsection
3.1Hakka hill song
3.2Hakka opera
3.3Hakkapop
4Cuisine
5Martial arts
6Clothing
7Religion
Toggle Religion subsection
7.1Hakka Taoism
8Hakka spirit
9Hakka sport culture in Taiwan
10See also
11References
Toggle the table of contents
Hakka culture
2 languages
မြန်မာဘာသာ中文
Edit links
ArticleTalk
English
ReadEditView history
Tools
Tools
move to sidebar
hide
Actions
ReadEditView history
General
What links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationCite this pageGet shortened URLDownload QR codeWikidata item
Print/export
Download as PDFPrintable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ethnic cultureHakka people are widely remembered for building walled villages to defend themselves during Punti-Hakka Clan Wars.[dubious – discuss]
Hakka culture (Chinese: 客家文化) refers to the culture created by Hakka people, a Han Chinese subgroup, across Asia and Americas. It encompasses the shared language, various art forms, food culture, folklore, and traditional customs. Hakka culture stemmed from the culture of Ancient Han Chinese, who migrated from China's central plain to what is modern day's Southern China during the 6th to 13th century, and intermixed with local non-Han Hmong–Mien speaking ethnic groups such as the Yao people, the She people, and the Miao people.[1] It has also been influenced by the cultures of surrounding Han Chinese groups, such as the Cantonese and the Hoklo. Having historically lived in the mountains of Southern China and being minority groups in many of the surrounding Chinese provinces, the Hakka have developed a culture characterized by reservedness, stability, and frugality.[2][3]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hakka culture.
Language[edit]
Main article: Hakka Chinese
Architecture[edit]
Hakka walled village[edit]
Main article: Hakka walled village
Hakka earthen building[edit]
Main article: Fujian Tulou
Horn House[edit]
Main article: Horn House
Arts[edit]
Hakka hill song[edit]
Main article: Hakka hill song
Hakka opera[edit]
Main article: Hakka opera
Hakkapop[edit]
Hakkapop is a genre of Hakka pop music made primarily in Taiwan, China, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Cuisine[edit]
Hakka salted chicken.
Main article: Hakka cuisine
Traditionally engaging in large amount of physical labor, Hakka people favor salty food and marinated vegetables that enable them to maintain their stamina.
Martial arts[edit]
The Hakka community is a source for a variety of martial arts including Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Southern Dragon Kung Fu.
Clothing[edit]
Shanku - coat and trousers worn by both Hakka men and women; the preferred colour is usually black and blue.[4] Hakka people in Taiwai usually wear coats, trousers, and skirts.[4]
Liangmao - a traditional Hakka hat worn by Hakka people.[5]
Footbinding - Historically, Hakka women did not bind their feet when the practice was commonplace in China.[6]
Religion[edit]
Typical traditional hillside tombs. Hukeng Town, Yongding County, Fujian.
See also: Religion in China
The religious practices of Hakka people are largely similar to those of other Han Chinese. Ancestor veneration is the primary form of religious expression.[7] One distinctively Hakka religious practice involves the worship of dragon deities.[8]
Hakka Taoism[edit]
Main articles: Three Great Emperor-Officials, Tudigong, and Lords of the Three Mountains
Hakka spirit[edit]
Hakka spirit refers to the Hakka people's spirit of endurance, diligence, and bravery in exploring new lands.[9]
Hakka sport culture in Taiwan[edit]
In Taiwan, the first Hakka community came from China Meizhou of Guangdong province, Chaozhou, Huizhou. They remain their living habits and plain life style.[10] The most characterized area is Liudui which is located in Kaohsiung and Pingtung. Hundreds of years ago, Liudui stood for six militia units of Hakka defense, which are Qiandui, Houdui, Zuodui, Youdui, Zhongdui and Hsianfengdui, respectively. Therefore, it represents to the Hakka communities in Pingtung and Kaohsiung. During the Qing Dynasty, the people in Liudui pushed down by the government. In order to strengthen their solidarity and protect their home, the people trained for defense. Gradually, the Liudui Hakka martial art become a local sport as the Japanese Government ruled Taiwan. With a great effort and support of local people, in 1948, the first Liudui Sports Game was held in Zhutian, Pingtung.[11] However, it was forced to barricade for eighteen years by the government when Taiwan was under the martial law generation. Fortunately, in 1966, the Liudui Sports Game back in action.[11] This event is annually held by the local government, and it has a strong connection with the Hakka culture. Since then, it has been a firm tradition event in Taiwan. The Liudui Sports Game is also known as Olympics of Dawu Mountain.[12] This sport game originated from the early martial. It is held by the Liudui immigrants. Liudui Sports Game is the biggest and the most unique Hakka contest in the Southern Taiwan, and it is the only Hakka sports event in the country. The purpose of the Liudui Sports Game is not only to commemorate the brave early immigrants but also to let the Hakka tradition pass down for years.[11] Moreover, this game encourages people to do more exercise because exercising is good for people in both physical and mental part. It is also a perfect time to gather people together. The Liudui Sports Game is popular among the athletes in Taiwan. Many famous athletes and sports figures have participated in this game such as Tseng Tsai-hua, who competed at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.[11] Furthermore, it is often viewed as one of the cradles for Taiwan’s athletes. Recently, the Liudui Sports Game has become a Hakka festival. Since it is not only an athletic activity but also a festival that people can learn about the Hakka culture such as history, art, and customs. People said that the Liudui Sports Game has carried on tradition Hakka culture, and truly demonstrated the Hakka spirit.[13] Before the sports competitions begin, there are series of activities which are included in this festival. For instance, it will hold passing the Liudui torch, an opera performance, and a bicycling tour. In addition, after the competition, there are a group of singers and bands hold a concert in the evening.
See also[edit]
Hakka traditional Qilin dance.
Cantonese culture
Hokkien culture
Gan culture
Xiang culture
Chinese culture
References[edit]
^ "客家文化源于河洛文化". Archived from the original on 2010-12-20. Retrieved 2017-10-21.
^ Jian-xin, Z. H. O. U. (2005). Ethnic Identity, Culture Consciousness and Hakka Culture [J]. Journal of Guangxi University For Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Science Edition), 2.
^ Deng-qiu, C. A. I. (2004). On Pluralism of the Formation of the Hakka Culture [J]. Journal of Sanming College, 3, 015.
^ a b "Hakka Clothing". club.ntu.edu.tw. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
^ "Womens hat (liangmao) by Hakka people". collection.maas.museum. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
^ Davis, Edward L. (2005). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture. London: Routledge. p. 333. ISBN 9780415241298.
^ Lozada, Eriberto (2005). Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin; Skoggard, Ian (eds.). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Vol. 2. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 92–103. ISBN 9780306483219.
^ "客家夥房的土地龍神". Archived from the original on 2012-04-19. Retrieved 2017-10-21.
^ The Hakka Spirit
^ "A Brief Historical Overview of the Hakka". www.hakka.gov.tw. Hakka Affairs Council. Retrieved 2019-07-18.
^ a b c d "Looking forward to the 2019 Liudui Games in Pingtung?". www.hakka.gov.tw. Hakka Affairs Council. Retrieved 2019-07-18.
^ "2015The Liudui Sports Game". festival.hakka.gov.tw. Retrieved 2019-07-18.
^ "Liudui Sports Game showcases Hakka tradition and spirit: premier". 2.16.886.101.20003. 2016-03-14. Retrieved 2019-07-18.
vteGuangdong topicsGuangzhou (capital)General
History
Politics
Economy
Geography
Cities
Metropolitan areas
Chaoshan
Pearl River Delta
Sanyi (Sam Yup)
Sze Yup (Siyi)
Leizhou Peninsula
Regions
Pearl River Delta
Yuexi
Yuebei
Yuedong
Pearl River
East River
West River
Nanling Mountains
Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks (claimed)
Shamian Island
Education
Guangzhou Education
Shenzhen Education
Culture
Lingnan culture
Cantonese people
Varieties of Chinese
Yue Chinese
Hailufeng
Teochew
Hakka
Lingnan architecture
Tong lau
Lingnan garden
Cantonese embroidery
Teochew woodcarving
Lingnan penjing
Canton porcelain
Lingnan School
Music
Cantonese opera
Naamyam
Guangdong music
Gou Wu
Cantonese poetry
Cantonese nationalism
Hung Ga
Wing Chun
Lingnan Confucianism
Flowermarket
Cantonese lion dance
Wong Tai Sin
Hung Shing
Cantonese merchants
Red cotton flower
Cantonese folktales
The Legend of Five Goats
Villain hitting
Hakka people
Teochew people
Zhuang people
Chu Hua Yuan
Cuisine
Cantonese cuisine
Beef chow fun
Chow mein
Char siu
Roasted suckling pig
Bird's nest soup
Seafood birdsnest
Shumai
Cantonese fried rice
Dim sum
Yum cha
Leung cha
Tong sui
Hakka cuisine
Teochew cuisine
Category
Commons
vteFujian topics
Fuzhou (PRC capital)
Jincheng (ROC capital)
General
History
Politics
Economy
Geography
Cities
Jiulong River
Min River
Wuyi Mountains
East China Sea
South China Sea
Taiwan Strait
Haitan Island
Jin River
Education
Huaqiao University
Xiamen University
Jimei University
Xiamen University of Technology
Longyan University
Putian University
Culture
Hokkien culture
Hoklo people
Min Chinese language
Written Hokkien
Hokkien architecture
Hokkien earthen buildings
Fuzhou people
Dehua porcelain
Jian ware
Shoushan stone carvings
Music
Glove puppetry
Koa-á books
Tale of the Lychee Mirror
Gongfu tea ceremony
Fujian White Crane
Dog Kung Fu
Mazu
Baosheng Dadi
Hui'an maidens
Narcissus
Turtle-back tombs
Hakka people
Hakka architecture
Koxinga
Putian people
Cuisine
Fujian cuisine
Hokkien mee
Bak kut teh
Banmian
Buddha jumps over the wall
Oolong tea
Visitor attractions
Sanfang Qixiang
Fuzhou Confucian Temple
Anping Bridge
Fujian Tulou
Guanghua Temple
Nanshan Temple
Matsu pilgrimage
Kaiyuan Temple
South Putuo Temple
Zhushan Power Plant
Juguang Tower
Category
Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hakka_culture&oldid=1151931090"
Category: Hakka cultureHidden categories: Articles with short descriptionShort description matches WikidataAll accuracy disputesArticles with disputed statements from February 2021Articles containing traditional Chinese-language textCommons category link is on Wikidata
This page was last edited on 27 April 2023, at 03:31 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Code of Conduct
Developers
Statistics
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Toggle limited content width
Hakka Chinese - Wikipedia
Jump to content
Main menu
Main menu
move to sidebar
hide
Navigation
Main pageContentsCurrent eventsRandom articleAbout WikipediaContact usDonate
Contribute
HelpLearn to editCommunity portalRecent changesUpload file
Languages
Language links are at the top of the page.
Search
Search
Create account
Log in
Personal tools
Create account Log in
Pages for logged out editors learn more
ContributionsTalk
Contents
move to sidebar
hide
(Top)
1Etymology
2History
Toggle History subsection
2.1Early history
2.2Linguistic development
3Phonology
4Dialects
5Vocabulary
6Writing systems
Toggle Writing systems subsection
6.1Chinese script
6.2Latin script
7Media
8See also
9Notes
10References
11Further reading
Toggle the table of contents
Hakka Chinese
65 languages
AfrikaansالعربيةܐܪܡܝܐAsturianuअवधीتۆرکجهবাংলাBân-lâm-gúBrezhonegCatalàČeštinaCymraegDeutschEspañolEsperantoفارسیFiji HindiFrançaisGaelgGalego贛語客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어हिन्दीBahasa IndonesiaItalianoJawaKiswahiliLietuviųമലയാളംمصرىمازِرونیBahasa Melayu閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄မြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsनेपाल भाषा日本語Norsk bokmålNorsk nynorskਪੰਜਾਬੀPangcahپنجابیPiemontèisPinayuananPolskiPortuguêsQaraqalpaqshaРусскийᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤScotsSimple EnglishSuomiSvenskaதமிழ்Татарча / tatarçaไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаVahcuenghTiếng Việt文言吴语粵語中文
Edit links
ArticleTalk
English
ReadEditView history
Tools
Tools
move to sidebar
hide
Actions
ReadEditView history
General
What links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationCite this pageGet shortened URLDownload QR codeWikidata item
Print/export
Download as PDFPrintable version
In other projects
Wikimedia CommonsWikivoyage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sinitic language originating in southern China
This article is about the language group. For the people, see Hakka people.
"Hakfa" redirects here. For the village in Syria, see Abu Hakfa.
Not to be confused with Hakha Chin language.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Hakka Chinese" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Hakka客家话Hak-kâ-va/Hak-kâ-fa"Kejiahua" in Chinese charactersRegionSouth and southwestern China centered on Guangdong, the New Territories in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Chợ Lớn in Vietnam, and Bangka Belitung and West Kalimantan in IndonesiaEthnicityHakkaNative speakers44 million (2022)[1]Language familySino-Tibetan
SiniticChineseHakkaEarly formsProto-Sino-Tibetan
Old Chinese
Proto-Hakka
Dialects
Meixian
Wuhua
Tingzhou
Taiwanese
Huizhou (?)
Writing systemChinese charactersLatin script (Pha̍k-fa-sṳ)Official statusOfficial language in Taiwan[a]Recognised minoritylanguage in China ThailandLanguage codesISO 639-3hakGlottologhakk1236Linguasphere79-AAA-g > 79-AAA-ga
(+ 79-AAA-gb transition to 79-AAA-h)This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
HakkaSimplified Chinese客家话Traditional Chinese客家話Hakkahag5 ga1 fa4or hag5 ga1 va4
TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinKèjiāhuàWuRomanizationKah-ka-hoGanRomanizationKhak-ka-uaHakkaRomanizationhag5 ga1 fa4or hag5 ga1 va4Pha̍k-fa-sṳHak-kâ-faor Hak-kâ-vaYue: CantoneseYale Romanizationhaak gā wáJyutpinghaak3 gaa1 waa2Southern MinHokkien POJKheh-oē (客话)
A Hakka speaker, recorded in Taiwan.
Hakka (Chinese: 客家话; pinyin: Kèjiāhuà; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Hak-kâ-va / Hak-kâ-fa, Chinese: 客家语; pinyin: Kèyǔ) forms a language group of varieties of Chinese, spoken natively by the Hakka people in parts of Southern China and some diaspora areas of Taiwan, Southeast Asia and in overseas Chinese communities around the world.
Due to its primary usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area, Hakka has developed numerous varieties or dialects, spoken in different provinces, such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Fujian, Sichuan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Guizhou, as well as in Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Yue, Wu, Southern Min, Mandarin or other branches of Chinese, and itself contains a few mutually unintelligible varieties. It is most closely related to Gan and is sometimes classified as a variety of Gan, with a few northern Hakka varieties[which?] even being partially mutually intelligible with southern Gan. There is also a possibility that the similarities are just a result of shared areal features.[5]
Taiwan designates Hakka as one of its national languages, thus regarding the language as a subject for its study and preservation. Pronunciation differences exist between the Taiwanese Hakka dialects and mainland China's Hakka dialects; even in Taiwan, two major local varieties of Hakka exist.
The Meixian dialect (Moiyen) of northeast Guangdong in mainland China has been taken as the "standard" dialect by the government of mainland China. The Guangdong Provincial Education Department created an official romanization of Moiyen in 1960, one of four languages receiving this status in Guangdong.
Etymology[edit]
The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the variety literally means "guest families" or "guest people": Hak (Mandarin: kè) means "guest", and ka (Mandarin: jiā) means "family". Among themselves, Hakka people variously called their language Hak-ka-fa (-va), Hak-fa (-va), Tu-gong-dung-fa (-va), literally "Native Guangdong language", and Ngai-fa (-va), "My/our language". In Tonggu County, Jiangxi province, people call their language Huai-yuan-fa.
History[edit]
Early history[edit]
It is commonly believed that Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest[6] dating back as far as the end of Western Jin.[7] The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Central Plains provinces of Henan and Shaanxi, and brought with them features of Chinese varieties spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then, the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin). The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants -p -t -k, as are found in other modern southern Chinese varieties, but which have been lost in Mandarin.
Laurent Sagart (2002)[8] considers Hakka and southern Gan Chinese to be sister dialects that descended from a single common ancestral language (Proto-Southern Gan) spoken in central Jiangxi during the Song Dynasty. In Hakka and southern Gan, Sagart (2002) identifies a non-Chinese substratum that is possibly Hmong-Mien, an archaic layer, and a more recent Late Middle Chinese layer. Lexical connections between Hakka, Kra-Dai, and Hmong-Mien have also been suggested by Deng (1999).[9]
Due to the migration of its speakers, Hakka may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary is found in Hakka, Min, and the She (Hmong–Mien) languages.[citation needed] Today, most She people in Fujian and Zhejiang speak She, which is closely related to Hakka.
Linguistic development[edit]
A regular pattern of sound change can generally be detected in Hakka, as in most Chinese varieties, of the derivation of phonemes from earlier forms of Chinese. Some examples:
Characters such as 武 (war, martial arts) or 屋 (room, house), pronounced roughly mwio and uk (mjuX and ʔuwk in Baxter's transcription) in Early Middle Chinese, have an initial v phoneme in Hakka, being vu and vuk in Hakka respectively. Like in Mandarin, labiodentalisation in Hakka also changed mj- to a w-like sound before grave vowels, while Cantonese retained the original distinction (compare Mandarin 武 wǔ, 屋 wū, Cantonese 武 mou5, 屋 uk1).
Middle Chinese initial phonemes /ɲ/ (ny in Baxter's transcription) of the characters 人 (person, people) and 日 (sun, day), among others, merged with ng- /ŋ/ initials in Hakka (人 ngin, 日 ngit). For comparison, in Mandarin, /ɲ/ became r- /ɻ/ (人 rén, 日 rì), while in Cantonese, it merged with initial y- /j/ (人 yan4, 日 yat6).
The initial consonant phoneme exhibited by the character 話 (word, speech; Mandarin huà) is pronounced f or v in Hakka (v does not properly exist as a distinct unit in many Chinese varieties).
The initial consonant of 學 hɔk usually corresponds with an h [h] approximant in Hakka and a voiceless alveo-palatal fricative (x [ɕ]) in Mandarin.
Phonology[edit]
Further information: Meixian dialect § Phonology
Dialects[edit]
講客。客語友善環境。 (Ngài gong Hak。Hak-ngî yû-san fàn-kín) (I speak Hakka. Hakka-language-friendly environment.)
Hakka has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers as the majority. Some[which?] of these Hakka dialects are not mutually intelligible with each other. Meixian is surrounded by the counties of Pingyuan, Dabu, Jiaoling, Xingning, Wuhua, and Fengshun. Each county has its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, Xingning lacks the codas [-m] and [-p]. These have merged into [-n] and [-t], respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the [-u-] medial, so whereas the Meixian dialect pronounces the character 光 as [kwɔŋ˦], the Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as [kɔŋ˧], which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.
Tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their checked tones (rusheng), and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-ru tones. An example of such a dialect is Changting, which is situated in Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng and Lufeng, situated in coastal southeastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all (with yin-yang registers in ping and ru tones and a shang tone).
In Taiwan, there are two main dialects: Sixian and Hailu (alternatively known as Haifeng; Hailu refers to Haifeng County and Lufeng County). Most Hakka speakers in Taiwan can trace their ancestry to these two regions. Sixian speakers come from Jiaying Prefecture, mainly from the four counties of Chengxiang (now Meixian District), Zhengping (now Jiaoling), Xingning and Pingyuan. Most dialects of Taiwanese Hakka, except Sixian and Dabu, preserved postalveolar consonants ([tʃ], [tʃʰ], [ʃ] and [ʒ]), which are uncommon in other southern Chinese varieties.
Huizhou dialect (not to be confused with Huizhou Chinese)
Meixian dialect (otherwise known as Meizhou)
Wuhua dialect
Xingning dialect
Pingyuan dialect
Jiaoling dialect
Dabu dialect
Fengshun dialect
Hailu dialect
Sixian dialect
Raoping dialect (a.k.a. Shangrao)[10]
Zhaoan dialect
Changting dialect
Ethnologue reports the dialects of Hakka as being Yue-Tai (Meixian, Wuhua, Raoping, Taiwan Kejia: Meizhou above), Yuezhong (Central Guangdong), Huizhou, Yuebei (Northern Guangdong), Tingzhou (Min-Ke), Ning-Long (Longnan), Yugui, and Tonggu.
Vocabulary[edit]
Like other southern Chinese varieties, Hakka retains many single syllable words from earlier stages of Chinese; thus, a large number of syllables are distinguished by tone and final consonant. This reduces the need for compound words. However, like other Chinese varieties, it does have words of more than one syllable.
Monosyllabic words
Character
Pronunciation
Gloss
人
[ŋin˩]
'person'
碗
[ʋɔn˧˩]
'bowl'
狗
[kɛu˧˩]
'dog'
牛
[ŋiu˩]
'cow'
屋
[ʋuk˩]
'house'
嘴
[tsɔi˥˧]
'mouth'
[ŋai˩]
'I', 'me'[b]
渠[11] or [12]
[ki˩]
'he', 'she', 'it'[c]
Polysyllabic words
Character
Pronunciation
Gloss
日頭
[ŋit˩ tʰɛu˩]
'sun'
月光
[ŋiɛt˥ kʷɔŋ˦]
'moon'
屋下
[ʋuk˩ kʰa˦]
'home'
屋家
電話
[tʰiɛn˥ ʋa˥˧]
'telephone'
學堂
[hɔk˥ tʰɔŋ˩]
'school'
筷子
[kai zi˩]
'chopsticks'
Hakka, as well as numerous other Chinese varieties such as Min and Cantonese, prefers the verb [kɔŋ˧˩] 講 when referring to 'saying', rather than the Mandarin 說; shuō (Hakka pronunciation: [sɔt˩]).
Hakka uses [sit˥] 食, like Cantonese [sɪk˨] for the verb 'to eat' and 飲 [jɐm˧˥] (Hakka [jim˧˩]) for 'to drink', unlike Mandarin which prefers chī 吃 (Hakka [kʰiɛt˩]) as 'to eat' and 喝; hē (Hakka [hɔt˩]) as 'to drink' where the meanings in Hakka are different, 'to stutter' and 'to be thirsty' respectively.
Examples
Character
Pronunciation
Gloss
阿妹,若姆去投墟轉來唔曾?
[a˦ mɔi˥, ɲja˦ mi˦ hi˥ tʰju˩ hi˦ tsɔn˧˩ lɔi˩ m˦ tsʰɛn˩]
Has your mother returned from going to the market yet, child?
其老弟捉到隻蛘葉來搞。
[kja˦ lau˧˩ tʰai˦ tsuk˧ tau˧˩ tsak˩ jɔŋ˩ jap˥ lɔi˩ kau˧˩]
His/her younger brother caught a butterfly to play with.
好冷阿,水桶个水敢凝冰阿。
[hau˧˩ laŋ˦ ɔ˦, sui˧˩ tʰuŋ˧ kai˥˧ sui˧˩ kam˦ kʰɛn˩ pɛn˦ ɔ˦]
It's very cold, the water in the bucket has frozen over.
Writing systems[edit]
Hakka Chinese Hanzi
Chinese script[edit]
Hakka Chinese is typically written using Chinese characters (漢字, 漢字 Hon-sṳ).
Latin script[edit]
Main article: Pha̍k-fa-sṳ
Various dialects of Hakka such as Taiwanese Hakka, is sometimes written in the Latin script or Pha̍k-fa-sṳ.
Dialects of Hakka have been written in a number of Latin orthographies, largely for religious purposes, since at least the mid-19th century. The popular The Little Prince has also been translated into Hakka (2000), specifically the Miaoli dialect of Taiwan (itself a variant of the Sixian dialect). This also was dual-script, albeit using the Tongyong Pinyin scheme.[citation needed]
Media[edit]
Tsai Ing-wen, President of the Republic of China (Taiwan) and of Taiwanese Hakka descent, appears on "Lecturer Hakka Language Radio Broadcasting" to give a speech.
Hakka TV is a state-run, primarily Hakka-language television channel in Taiwan that started in 2003. In mainland China, Meizhou Televisions's Hakka Public Channel (梅州电视台客家公共频道) has broadcasts 24 hours a day in Hakka since 2006.[13][better source needed]
See also[edit]
Varieties of Chinese
Hakka culture
Hakka Transliteration Scheme
Pha̍k-fa-sṳ
Hagfa Pinyim
Protection of the Varieties of Chinese
Taiwanese Hakka
Notes[edit]
^ National language in Taiwan;[2] also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements[3] and for the naturalisation test.[4]
^ The Standard Chinese equivalent 我 is pronounced [ŋɔ˧].
^ The Standard Chinese equivalents 他/她/它/牠 are pronounced [tʰa˧].
References[edit]
^ Hakka at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
^ Fan, Cheng-hsiang; Kao, Evelyn (2018-12-25). "Draft National Language Development Act Clears Legislative Floor". Focus Taiwan News Channel. Central News Agency. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25.
^ "Dàzhòng yùnshū gōngjù bòyīn yǔyán píngděng bǎozhàng fǎ" 大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法 [Act on Broadcasting Language Equality Protection in Public Transport] (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
^ Article 6 of the Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens Archived 2017-07-25 at the Wayback Machine
^ Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J., eds. (2003). The Sino-Tibetan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1129-5.
^ "The Hakka People > Historical Background". edu.ocac.gov.tw. Archived from the original on 2019-09-09. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
^ "[Insert title here]". edu.ocac.gov.tw (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2004-08-30. Retrieved 2014-10-12.
^ Sagart (2002).
^ Deng, Xiaohua 邓晓华 (1999). "Kèjiāhuà gēn Miáo-Yáo-Zhuàng-Dòngyǔ de Guānxì wèntí" 客家话跟苗瑶壮侗语的关系问题 (PDF). Mínzú yǔwén 民族语文 (in Chinese). 3: 42–49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-27. Retrieved 2021-07-03.
^ Zhan, Bohui 詹伯慧 (1993). "Guǎngdōng Shěng Ráopíng fāngyán jì yīn" 广东省饶平方言记音. Fāngyán 方言 (in Simplified Chinese) (2): 129–141.
^ Liu, Zhenfa 劉鎮發 (1997). Kèyǔ pīnyīn zìhuì 客語拼音字彙 [Hakka Pinyin Vocabulary] (in Chinese). Xianggang zhongwen daxue chubanshe. p. xxvi. ISBN 962-201-750-9.
^ . Jiàoyùbù yìtǐzì zìdiǎn 教育部異體字字典 [Dictionary of Chinese Character Variants of the Ministry of Education] (in Chinese). Retrieved 2021-11-04.
^ "Méizhōu diànshìtái kāishè quán kèjiā huà píndào (24 xiǎoshí bō chū)" 梅州电视台开设全客家话频道(24小时播出) [Meizhou TV Station Opens an All-Hakka Dialect Channel (24 Hours Broadcast)]. Luófú shān pùbù de bókè 罗浮山瀑布的博客 (in Chinese). blog.sina.com.cn. 2011-07-21.
Further reading[edit]
Hakka Chinese edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Hakka.
Branner, David Prager (2000). Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka. Trends in Linguistics series, no. 123. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-015831-1.
Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (2010). The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of Its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon. Princeton/Cambridge Studies in Chinese Linguistics. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13367-8.
Lee, Wai-Sum & Zee, Eric (2009). "Hakka Chinese". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 39 (1): 107–111. doi:10.1017/S0025100308003599{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), with supplementary sound recordings.
O'Connor, Kevin A. (1976). "Proto-Hakka". Ajia Afurika Gengo Bunka Kenkyū / Journal of Asia and Africa Studies. 11 (1): 1–64.
Sagart, Laurent (1998). "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 26 (2): 281–302. JSTOR 23756757.
——— (2002). "Gan, Hakka and the Formation of Chinese Dialects" (PDF). In Ho, Dah-an (ed.). Dialect Variations in Chinese: Papers from the Third International Conference on Sinology, Linguistics Section. Taipei: Academia Sinica. pp. 129–153.
Schaank, Simon Hartwich (1897). Het Loeh-foeng-dialect (in Dutch). Leiden: E.J. Brill. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
Taiwan Language Tool (including Hakka)
vteSino-Tibetan branchesWestern Himalayas(Himachal, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim)
West Himalayish
Tamangic
Newaric
Newar
Baram–Thangmi
Kiranti
Dhimalish
Dhimal
Toto
Lhokpu
Lepcha
Greater Magaric
Magaric
Magar
Kham
Chepangic
Chepang
Bhujel
Raji–Raute
Dura–Tandrange
Eastern Himalayas(Tibet, Bhutan, Arunachal)
Bodish
Tibetic
East Bodish
Tshangla
Basum
Nam?
Gongduk
ʼOle
Tani
Chamdo
Myanmar and Indo-Burmese border
Karbi
Kuki-Chin
Mruic
Mru
Hkongso
Pyu
Taman
"Naga"
Ao
Angami–Pochuri
Meitei
Tangkhulic
Zeme
Sal
Boro–Garo
Konyak
Jingpho–Luish
East and Southeast Asia
Sinitic
Chinese
Min
Bai
Tujia
Nungish
Karenic
Gong
Kathu
Cai–Long
Caijia
Longjia
Luren
Burmo-Qiangic
Qiangic
Gyalrongic
Ersuic
Naic
Lolo-Burmese
Mondzish
Burmish
Loloish
Dubious (possible isolates)(Arunachal)
Hrusish
Hruso
Mijiic
Kho-Bwa
Puroik
Miju–Meyor
Songlin
Greater Siangic
Siangic
Koro
Milang
Idu–Taraon
Proposed groupings
Central Tibeto-Burman
Kuki-Chin–Naga
Macro-Bai
Mahakiranti
Rung
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Kanauri
Proto-languages
Proto-Sino-Tibetan
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
Proto-Loloish
Proto-Karenic
Proto-Min
Proto-Hakka
Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.
vteChinese languageSinitic languagesMajor groupsMandarinNortheastern
Changchun
Harbin
Shenyang
Taz
Beijing
Beijing
Taiwan
Jilu
Tianjin
Jinan
Jiaoliao
Dalian
Qingdao
Weihai
Central Plains
Dongping
Gangou
Guanzhong
Xi'an
Luoyang
Xuzhou
Dungan
Lanyin
Xinjiang
Southwestern
Sichuanese
Chengdu–Chongqing
Minjiang
Leshan
Renshou–Fushun
Zigong
Kunming
Nanping
Wuhan
Gui–Liu
Wuming
Huai
Nanjing
Nantong
WuTaihu
Shanghai
Suzhou
Wuxi
Changzhou
Hangzhou (?)
Shaoxing
Ningbo
Jinxiang
Jiangyin
Shadi
Taizhou Wu
Taizhou
Tiantai
Oujiang
Wenzhou
Rui'an
Wencheng
Wuzhou
Jinhua
Chu–Qu
Quzhou
Jiangshan
Qingtian
Xuanzhou
Xuancheng
Gan
Chang–Du
Nanchang
Yi–Liu
Ying–Yi
Da–Tong
Xiang
Changyi
Changsha
Loushao
Shuangfeng
Xiangxiang
Wugang
Ji–Xu
Yong–Quan
Qiyang
MinEastern
Fuzhou
Fuqing
Fu'an
Manjiang
SouthernHokkien
Quanzhou
Zhangzhou
Amoy
Taiwan
Philippine
Pedan
Penang
Singapore
Malaysian
Chaoshan
Teochew
Swatow
Haifeng
Zhongshan
Nanlang
Sanxiang
Other
Zhenan
Longyan
Other
Northern
Jian'ou
Jianyang
Central
Pu–Xian
Shao–Jiang
Leizhou
Zhanjiang
Hainan
Hakka
Meixian
Wuhua
Huizhou
Tingzhou
Changting
Taiwanese
Sixian
Hailu
Raoping
YueYuehai
Guangzhou
Hong Kong
Xiguan
Jiujiang
Shiqi
Weitou
Dapeng
Siyi
Taishan
Xinhui
Other
Gao–Yang
Goulou
Wu–Hua
Yong–Xun
Luo–Guang
Qin–Lian
Pinghua
Northern
Tongdao
Younian
Southern
Yongjiang
Guandao
Rongjiang
Proposed
Huizhou
Jin
Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
Zhi–Yan
Unclassified
Badong Yao
Danzhou
Junjiahua
Mai
Shaozhou Tuhua
She
Waxiang
Xiangnan Tuhua
Yeheni
Standardforms
Standard Chinese
Sichuanese
Taiwanese
Philippine
Malaysian
Singaporean
Standard
Singdarin
Cantonese
Hokkien
Hakka
Phonology
Historical
Old
Old National
Cantonese
Mandarin
Literary and colloquial readings
Grammar
Numerals
Classifiers
Honorifics
Cantonese grammar
Classical grammar
Idioms
Chengyu
Xiehouyu
Input
Biaoxingma
Boshiamy
Cangjie
Simplified
CKC
Dayi
Pinyin
Microsoft
Sogou
Stroke count
Wubi (Wang Ma)
ZhengMa
History
Old Chinese
Eastern Han
Middle Chinese
Old Mandarin
Middle Mandarin
Proto-Min
Ba–Shu
Gan
Literary formsOfficial
Classical
Adoption
in Japan
in Vietnam
Vernacular
Written Cantonese
Written Dungan
Written Hokkien
Written SichuaneseScriptsLogographicScript styles
Oracle bone
Bronze
Seal
Clerical
Semi-cursive
Cursive
Chinese characters
Simplified
Traditional
PunctuationBraille
Cantonese
Mainland Chinese
Taiwanese
Two-cell
Phonetic
Cyrillization
Dungan Cyrillic
Romanization
Gwoyeu Romatzyh
Hanyu Pinyin
MPS II
Postal
Tongyong Pinyin
Wade–Giles
Yale
Bopomofo
Cantonese Bopomofo
Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
Taiwanese kana
Taiwanese Hangul
Xiao'erjing
Nüshu
List of varieties of Chinese
vteLanguages of ChinaOfficial
Standard Chinese
RegionalARs / SARs
CantoneseHK/MC
EnglishHK
MongolianNM
PortugueseMC
TibetanXZ
UyghurXJ
ZhuangGX
Prefecture
Hmong
Kam
Bouyei
Tujia
Korean
Qiang
Yi
Kyrgyz
Kazakh
Tai Nüa
Tai Lü
Zaiwa
Lisu
Bai
Hani
Zhuang
Counties/BannersnumerousIndigenousSino-Tibetan languagesLolo-BurmeseMondzish
Kathu
Maang
Manga
Mango
Maza
Mondzi
Muangphe
Burmish
Achang
Xiandao
Pela
Lashi
Chashan
Lhao Vo
Zaiwa
LoloishHanoish
Akeu
Akha
Amu
Angluo
Asuo
Baihong
Bisu
Budu
Bukong
Cosao
Duoni
Duota
Enu
Habei
Hani
Honi
Jino
Kabie
Kaduo
Lami
Laomian
Laopin
Mpi
Muda
Nuobi
Nuomei
Phana’
Piyo
Qidi
Sadu
Sangkong
Suobi
Tsukong
Woni
Yiche
Lisoish
Eka
Hlersu
Kua-nsi
Kuamasi
Laizisi
Lalo
Lamu
Lavu
Lawu
Limi
Lipo
Lisu
Lolopo
Mangdi
Micha
Mili
Sonaga
Toloza
Xuzhang
Yangliu
Zibusi
Nisoish
Alingpo
Alugu
Aluo
Axi
Azha
Azhe
Bokha
Gepo
Khlula
Lope
Moji
Muji
Muzi
Nasu
Nisu
Nuosu
Phala
Phola
Phowa
Phukha
Phuma
Phupa
Phupha
Phuza
Samei
Sani
Thopho
Zokhuo
Other
Gokhy
Katso
Kucong
Lahu
Naruo
Namuyi
Naxi
Nusu
Samu
Sanie
Zauzou
Qiangic
Baima
Choyo
Ersu
Guiqiong
Horpa
Japhug
Khroskyabs
Laze
Lizu
Na
Muya
Namuyi
Naxi
Pumi
Northern Qiang
Southern Qiang
Shixing
Situ
Tshobdun
Zbu
Zhaba
Tibetic
Amdo
Baima
Basum
Central Tibetan
Choni
Dao
Dongwang
Drugchu
Groma
Gserpa
Khalong
Khams
Kyirong
Ladakhi
Tseku
Zhongu
Zitsadegu
Other
Bai
Caijia
Derung
Jingpo
Longjia
Nung
Tujia
Waxianghua
Other languagesAustroasiatic
Bit
Blang
Bolyu
Bugan
Bumang
Hu
Kuan
Mang
Man Met
Muak Sa-aak
Palaung
Riang
U
Va
Wa
Hmong-MienHmongic
A-Hmao
Bu-Nao
Gejia
Guiyang
Hm Nai
Hmong
Hmu
Huishui
Kiong Nai
Luobohe
Mashan
Pa-Hng
Pa Na
Pingtang
Qo Xiong
Raojia
She
Small Flowery
Xixiu
Younuo
Mienic
Biao Min
Dzao Min
Iu Mien
Kim Mun
Mongolic
Bonan
Buryat
Daur
Eastern Yugur
Kangjia
Khamnigan
Monguor
Oirat
Ordos
Santa
Torgut
Kra-DaiZhuang
Bouyei
Dai
Min
Ningming
Nong
Tai Dam
Tai Dón
Tai Hongjin
Tai Lü
Tai Nüa
Tai Ya
Yang
Yei
Other
Ai-Cham
Biao
Buyang
Cao Miao
Chadong
Cun
Gelao
Hlai
Jiamao
Kam
Lakkja
Mak
Maonan
Mulam
Naxi Yao
Ong Be
Paha
Qabiao
Sui
Then
Tungusic
Evenki
Manchu
Nanai
Oroqen
Xibe
Turkic
Äynu
Fuyu Kyrgyz
Ili Turki
Lop
Salar
Western Yugur
Other
Sarikoli (Indo-European)
Tsat (Austronesian)
Formosan languages (Austronesian)
Minority
Kazakh
Korean
Kyrgyz
Russian
Tatar
Tuvan
Uzbek
Vietnamese (Kinh)
Wakhi
Varieties ofChinese
Mandarin
Northeastern
Beijing
Ji-Lu
Jiao-Liao
Zhongyuan
Lan-Yin
Jin
Southwestern
Sichuanese
Southeastern
Gan
Hakka
Hui
Min
Southern
Hokkien
Teoswa
Hainanese
Eastern
Puxian
Central
Northern
Shaojiang
Wu
Northern
Auish
Xiang
New
Old
Yue
Cantonese
Ping
Creole/Mixed
E
Hezhou
Lingling
Macanese
Maojia
Qoqmončaq
Sanqiao
Tangwang
Wutun
Extinct
Ba–Shu
Jie
Khitan
Old Yue
Rouran
Saka
Tangut
Tocharian
Tuoba
Tuyuhun
Xianbei
Zhangzhung
Sign
Chinese Sign
Northern (Beijing) Sign
Southern (Shanghai) Sign
Hong Kong SignHK/MC
Tibetan SignXZ
GX = Guangxi
HK = Hong Kong
MC = Macau
NM = Inner Mongolia
XJ = Xinjiang
XZ = Tibet
vteLanguages of TaiwanAustronesianFormosanAtayalic
Atayal
Seediq
Truku
Rukaic
Rukai
Northern
Babuza
Favorlang
Taokas
Papora
Hoanya
Arikun
Lloa
Pazeh
Kaxabu
Kulon
Saisiyat
Thao
East
Amis
Kavalan
Ketagalan
Basay
Luilang
Makatao
Qauqaut
Sakizaya
Siraya
Taivoan
Southern
Bunun
Paiwan
Puyuma
Tsouic
Kanakanavu
Saaroa
Tsou
Malayo-PolynesianBatanic
Yami
Sino-TibetanSiniticMandarin
Taiwanese Mandarin
Junhua
MinSouthern
Taiwanese Hokkien
Teochew dialect
Eastern
Fuzhounese
Matsu dialect
Pu-Xian
Putian dialect (Wuqiu dialect)
Hakka
Taiwanese Hakka
Sixian
Hailu
Dabu
Raoping
Zhao'an
Japonic Sign
Taiwanese Sign Language
Auxiliary
Taiwanese Braille
Other languages
English
Cantonese
Wu
Shanghainese
Filipino
Japanese
Korean
Malay
Malaysian
Indonesian
Thai
Vietnamese
Yilan Creole Japanese
Portals: Language China
Authority control databases: National
Germany
Israel
Japan
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hakka_Chinese&oldid=1209646542"
Categories: Hakka ChineseLanguages of ChinaLanguages of TaiwanLanguages of Hong KongChinese languages in SingaporeLanguages of SingaporeLanguages of MalaysiaLanguages of IndonesiaLanguages of VietnamLanguages of ThailandLanguages of SurinameLanguages of IndiaLanguages of BangladeshHakka cultureVarieties of ChineseHidden categories: Pages with plain IPALanguage articles citing Ethnologue 27CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)Webarchive template wayback linksCS1 Simplified Chinese-language sources (zh-hans)Articles with short descriptionShort description is different from WikidataArticles needing additional references from January 2024All articles needing additional referencesArticles containing Chinese-language textArticles containing Hakka-language textISO language articles citing sources other than EthnologueAll articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrasesArticles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2022All articles with unsourced statementsArticles with unsourced statements from November 2016Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021Articles containing simplified Chinese-language textAll articles lacking reliable referencesArticles lacking reliable references from July 2021CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listCS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)Articles with GND identifiersArticles with J9U identifiersArticles with NDL identifiers
This page was last edited on 22 February 2024, at 22:54 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Code of Conduct
Developers
Statistics
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Toggle limited content width